REESE  LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

Deceived 


. 
Accession  No.  9         .   Class  No. 


HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 


HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 


FOR   TEACHERS  AND  PUPILS  IN 
ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


BY 


D.    LANGE 


INSTRUCTOR  IN   NATURE  STUDY   IN   THE  PUBLIC   SCHOOLS 
OF   ST.    PAUL,  MINNESOTA 


gorfc 
THE   MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

LONDON:  MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LTD. 

1898 

All  right*  reserved 


COPYRIGHT,  1898, 
BY  THE  -MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


f  f 


Nortoooti 

J.  S.  Gushing  &  Co.  -  Berwick  &  Smith 
Norwood  Mass.  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

THE  study  of  nature  with  a  view  to  understand  the 
relations  of  plant  and  animal  life  to  the  welfare  and 
happiness  of  man,  needs  no  justification  in  this  age  of 
scientific  agriculture  and  applied  sciences.  All  our  most 
progressive  teachers  agree  that  Elementary  Science  or 
Nature  Study  should  have  a  place  on  the  programme  of 
every  graded  and  ungraded  school  in  the  land. 

Purpose  of  this  book.  —  The  writer  has  attempted  to  point 
out  some  of  the  material  which  may  be  made  the  basis  of 
profitable  lessons  in  Nature  Study,  and  he  has  endeavored 
to  show  how  this  material  may  be  made  available  and  what 
the  pupils  may  be  taught  about  it. 

Plan  of  the  book.  —  A  glance  at  the  contents  of  the  differ- 
ent chapters  will  show  that  the  writer  has  tried  to  learn 
directly  from  nature,  and  he  would  strongly  urge  teachers 
and  pupils  to  attend  nature's  own  school  in  fields  and  for- 
ests, and  at  lakes  and  streams.  Those  happy  children  who 
can  spend  their  vacations  outdoors  do  not  confine  their 
attention  to  one  class  of  objects  and  phenomena.  While 
on  a  ramble  through  the  woods  they  naturally  observe  the 
birds,  the  insects,  the  trees,  shrubs,  and  flowers  of  the 
season ;  and  a  similar  statement  is  true  of  lakes  and  rivers, 
of  swamp,  marsh,  and  meadow.  I  have,  therefore,  arranged 

v 


vi  PREFACE 

the  subject-matter  according  to  seasons  and  life  communi- 
ties, under  such  chapters  as  "  Life  in  and  near  the  Water 
in  Summer/'  "  The  Prairie  in  Late  Summer,"  "  The  Woods 
in  their  Autumn  Foliage,"  etc.  An  effort  has  been  made 
throughout  the  book  to  show  that  all  nature  is  one.  Scien- 
tific classification  has  not  been  excluded,  but  has  been  kept 
in  the  background,  because  the  child  must  study  the  con- 
crete before  he  can  make  abstractions.  Many  of  our  high 
school  and  college  students  take  but  a  limited  interest  in 
Botany  and  Zoology,  because  they  possess  almost  nothing 
of  what  may  be  called  "  common  knowledge  about  the  life 
around  us."  How  can  we  expect  that  these  young  pupils 
should  suddenly  be  interested  in  the  microscopic  structure 
of  plants  and  animals,  which  they  have  always  passed  by 
with  stupid  indifference ;  or  for  what  possible  reason  should 
scientific  systematization  attract  them,  when  they  know 
nothing  about  the  life  history  of  the  trees  in  their  yards  and 
of  the  birds  that  nest  on  them?  This  little  volume  is,  how-\ 
ever,  specially  intended  to  point  out  work  for  those  children 
whose  school  years  close  with  the  common  school  course.  \ 
Their  education  must  remain  elementary,  but  it  should, 
neverthelessj  be  broad  and  thorough.  The  writer  does  not 
believe  that  the  physical  sciences  should  be  excluded  from 
our  common  schools ;  they  should  receive  special  attention 
during  the  last  or  the  last  two  school  years,  but  it  has  not 
been  deemed  advisable  to  include  much  of  them  in  this 
volume. 

Suggestions  to  teachers  and  parents.  —  In  order  to  do  suc- 
cessfully some  of  the  work  suggested  and  outlined,  it  is  not 


PREFACE  vii 

necessary  to  have  taken  a  course  in  Botany,  Zoology,  or 
Geology.  You  can  do  the  work  if  you  have  an  earnest 
desire  to  do  it.  The  attention  of  the  children  should  be 
directed  to  the  subject  of  the  lesson  some  time  before  the 
lesson  is  given.  For  this  purpose  teachers  should  consult 
the  footnotes  and  the  paragraph  on  the  subject  under  con- 
sideration, and  plan  their  work  at  least  a  few  weeks  in 
advance.  Procure  as  much  of  the  suggested  material  as 
possible,  and  procure  other  material  if  it  seems  helpful 
for  the  purpose  of  the  lesson. 

Whenever  practicable,  each  pupil  should  have  all  or  some 
of  the  material  on  his  desk ;  when  that  is  not  practicable, 
the  material  may  be  shown  to  the  pupils,  or  it  may  be 
passed  around.  The  facts  which  you  desire  to  teach  should 
be  derived  from  previous  observations  and  from  the  material 
before  the  class.  You  may  tell  the  pupils  what  you  cannot 
direct  them  to  find  out  for  themselves,  but  it  is  almost 
always  a  bad  plan  to  read  to  the  pupils  during  Nature 
Study  lessons.  Before  you  give  a  lesson  on  an  animal  or  a 
plant  or  a  phenomenon,  you  should  know  just  what  you 
want  to  teach  about  it ;  therefore  you  should  always  have  a 
carefully  prepared  outline  in  your  mind. 

At  the  close  of  the  lesson,  let  one  or  more  pupils  sum  up 
in  well-constructed  sentences  the  results  of  the  lesson.  No 
broken  sentences  should  be  allowed  in  this  review.  At  the 
close  of  a  chapter,  give  a  general  review  as  outlined  and 
suggested  in  the  book.  A  live  teacher  will  find  in  Nature 
Study  work  many  good  subjects  for  compositions  and  much 
valuable  material  for  drawing. 


yiii  PREFACE 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  the  children  collect  most  of  the 
material,  but  the  teacher  should  see  to  it  that  they  do  not 
violate  the  property  rights  of  others,  unnecessarily  destroy 
plants,  or  treat  animals  with  cruelty.  For  various  reasons, 
the  writer  cannot  advocate  animal  dissection  in  common 
schools.  The  only  instruments  required  for  plant  dissec- 
tion are  a  pin  and  a  sharp  knife.  A  small  magnifying  lens 
would  be  valuable  to  the  teacher.  The  pupils  must  not 
use  a  book  for  this  work  during  the  lesson ;  but  some  good 
book  on  the  subject  could  profitably  be  placed  in  the  hands 
of  the  older  pupils  for  home  reading,  or  for  reviewing  topics 
studied  in  the  class-room.  That  the  teacher  should  not  give 
Nature  Study  lessons  with  an  open  book  before  her  is  self- 
evident. 

It  was  not  and  could  not  be  the  writer's  intention  to  lay 
down  a  programme  of  Nature  Study  for  any  particular  school 
or  schools.  The  term's  programme  in  this  work  depends  so 
much  on  the  seasons  and  on  local  conditions,  that  the  mak- 
ing of  it  should  be  left  to  the  teacher,  principal,  or  superin- 
tendent. Nor  is  it  the  author's  idea  that  any  teacher 
should  rigidly  adhere  to  the  material  and  its  arrangement 
in  any  particular  book.  If,  for  instance,  the  mocking  bird 
is  more  common  near  your  school  than  the  robin,  then 
study  the  former  instead  of  the  latter.  For  the  methods 
of  collecting  a  few  plants,  insects,  and  other  material,  teach- 
ers are  referred  to  the  appendix. 

It  is  believed  that  the  work  laid  out  in  this  book  will 
furnish  enough  material  for  three  or  four  school  years  of 
nine  months  each,  if  two  weekly  lessons  of  about  thirty 


PREFACE  ix 

minutes  each  are  given  to  it.  In  ungraded  schools  the 
teacher  should  form  one  class  of  all  pupils,  or  nearly  all 
pupils,  for  this  subject,  but  she  should  not  excuse  the  older 
pupils  from  it.  As  the  opportunities  for  observations  are 
best  in  the  country,  this  work  is  not  at  all  specially  difficult 
in  ungraded  country  schools.  The  writer  believes  that  a 
teacher  of  average  ability  can  make  this  work  profitable 
for  pupils  between  the  ages  of  eight  and  eighteen.  The 
teacher  who  has  never  tried  work  of  this  kind  will  be 
surprised  how  readily  pupils  take  hold  of  it,  provided 
that  they  be  taught  directly  from  nature.  Nor  does  the 
teacher  need  to  feel  disgraced  if  she  cannot  answer  every 
question  asked  by  the  children.  There  are  many  ques- 
tions connected  with  Nature  Study  which  no  mortal  has 
ever  answered. 

The  territory  for  which  this  book  is  especially  designed 
extends  from  the  Atlantic  coast  to  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  from  the  Canadian  Provinces  to  the  latitude  of  southern 
Virginia  and  Kentucky. 

Illustrations.  —  Their  main  purpose  is  to  assist  teachers 
in  the  identification  of  the  plants  and  animals  to  be  studied. 
Nos.  3  and  4  are  originals,  drawn  by  Miss  Josephine  E. 
Tilden,  of  Minneapolis ;  all  the  other  originals  were  drawn 
by  Miss  Henrietta  G.  Fox,  of  Minneapolis.  For  those  which 
are  not  originals,  due  credit  is  given  elsewhere. 

Nomenclature.  —  On  vertebrates  I  have  followed  the  fifth 
edition  of  Jordan's  "  Manual  of  the  Vertebrate  Animals 
of  the  Northern  United  States " ;  on  insects,  Comstock's 
"Manual  for  the  Study  of  Insects";  and  on  plants,  the 


X  PREFACE 

sixth  edition  of  Gray's  "Manual  of  the  Botany  of  the 
Northern  United  States." 

Besides  consulting  well-known  writers  on  Natural  History 
subjects,  I  have  derived  much  help  from  the  publications 
of  the  Ignited  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  from  the 
publications  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  stations  of 
several  states,  and  from  the  valuable  German  manuals  of 
Kiessling  and  Pfalz. 

To  my  fellow-teachers,  J.  E.  Kenny,  0.  T.  Denny,  and 
H.  W.  Slack,  of  this  city,  I  am  indebted  for  reading  the 
manuscript.  Messrs.  Kenny  and  Denny  have  also  rendered 
me  valuable  assistance  in  reading  the  proof. 

With  the  wish  that  this  little  book  may  do  its  share  of 
work  in  the  spread  of  education  and  in  making  our  boys 
and  girls  better  and  happier,  it  is  submitted  to  teachers  and 
parents. 


L>.   LANQE. 


ST.  PAUL,  MINNESOTA, 
April,  1898. 


CONTENTS 

PART  FIRST 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.    ABOUT  HOME.     March  to  June 1 

II.     POND,  LAKE,  AND  STREAM.     May  to  July         ...  17 

III.  GEOLOGICAL  ACTION  OP  WATER 38 

IV.  IN  THE  MEADOW.    July  and  August         ....  44 
V.    PRAIRIE  FLOWERS  IN  AUGUST .50 

VI.     ROADSIDES  AND   NEGLECTED  CORNERS.      A  Chapter  on 

Weeds 58 

VII.    LIFE    ABOUT    OUR    HOMES    IN    FALL.      September  and 

October 70 

VIII.     WINDOW  FLOWERS.     November 85 

IX.    REVIEW  OF  PLANTS  STUDIED.    November        ...  90 

X.     DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.    December  to  February    ...  94 

PART  SECOND 

I.    THE  TREES  OF  OUR  WOODS.     Introduction      .        .        .  123 
II.     SOME    FOREST    TREES    IN    THEIR    WINTER    CONDITION. 

February  and  March 127 

III.  THE  WOODS  IN  BLOOM.    March  to  May   ....  137 

IV.  ANIMAL  LIFE  IN  THE  WOODS.    June  and  July        .        .  154 

xi 


xii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

V.    IN  THE  FIELD.    June  to  September  .        .        ...  181 

VI.    THE  WOODS  IN  THEIR  SUMMER  FOLIAGE.     September    .  231 

VII.    THE  WOODS  IN  AUTUMN.    September  and  October .        .  238 

VIII.    EVERGREENS,  OR  PINES  AND  PINE  FORESTS.    November,  252 

IX.    A  FEW  BIRDS  THAT  ARE  RESIDENTS  IN  OUR  NORTHERN 

STATES.     December       .        .        .        .       ,.        .        .  262 

X.    ABOUT  A  FEW  COMMON  MAMMALS.    January  .        .        .  274 

XI.    AMERICAN  BIG  GAME.    February      .        .        .        .        .  278 

XII.     SUMMARY  OF  LIFE  IN  THE  WOODS    .        ...        .  289 

XIII.  LAKE  AND  RIVER  IN  WINTER.    February  and  March     .  295 

XIV.  REVIEW  OF  ANIMAL  LIFE  .        .        .      v  .        «,                 .  302 
XV.    THE    EFFECT   OF    WATER   AND    ICE,    OF   ANIMALS   AND 

PLANTS,  AND  OF  HEAT,  UPON  THE  EARTH          .        .  305 
XVI.     ANIMATE  AND  INANIMATE  NATURE  ;   PLANTS,  ANIMALS, 

AND    MAN    IN    THEIR    RELATION    TO    ONE    ANOTHER         .  310 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAG  15 

APPLE-TREE  TENT  CATERPILLAR 7 

LADYBUG  J       .        .         .         .         ..        .         .         •',•'•         •         .10 

SAGE  WILLOW 19 

QUAIUNG  ASP 20 

FROJG 22 

MosbuiTO 26 

BARI^  SWALLOW 28 

BOBOLINK 30 

LARGER  BLUE  FLAG .         .         .35 

BOUQUET  OF  GRASSES 46 

BOUQUET  OF  PRAIRIE  FLOWERS 51 

FLORETS  OF  SUNFLOWER 54 

GIANT  RAGWEED     .     ' 50 

COMMON  RAGWEED           .........  59 

FALSE  SUNFLOWER (JO 

CANADA  THISTLE 61 

BURDOCK 63 

RUSSIAN  THISTLE 60 

Box  ELDER 71 

BAT .77 

ORB  WEAVER 81 

SKULL  OF  DOG 97 


xiv  LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

SKULL  OF  Cow        .        . 104 

STOMACH  OF  SHEEP         .        . 105 

EUROPEAN  WILD  BOAR  .         .         .        .        .        .         .         .         .  110 

SOFT  MAPLE    .         .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .  138 

WHITE  ASH      .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .140 

WHITE  ELM     ...........  141 

PAPER  BIRCH .         .  142 

IRONWOOD 143 

SUGAR  MAPLE          .         .         .         .                 .         ...         .  145 

BUTTERNUT 146 

BlTTERNUT,    OR    SWAMP    HlCKORY 147 

BUR  OAK          .        .        .        .  .-       .        .        .        .        .148 

SCARLET  OAK  .         .        .         .     ^  .        ,        .        .        .      >.        .149 

HACKBERRY 150 

LINDEN 151 

BALTIMORE  ORIOLE          .        .        .        .        ....         .         .     159 

ROSE-BREASTED  GROSBEAK      .         .        . 160 

WILD  MUSTARD       .         .        .        ,.        .        .        .        .         .         .193 

MONARCH  BUTTERFLY     .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .         .     203 

GERMAN,  BLACK,  OR  BROWN  BEE          ......     205 

ROCKY  MOUNTAIN  LOCUST      .        .        .        .        .*       ,        .         .     214 

CLAYTON'S  FERN     . .240 

BRAKE  OR  BRAKEN         .         .         .         .         .        .        .        .         .    241 

MAIDENHAIR  FERN 242 

BARE-SOIL  Moss      .         ...        .         .        .         .        .         .     245 

HAIR  Moss  AND  COMMOX  PEAT  Moss 246 

A  COMMON  MUSHROOM 248 

A  PUFFBALL    .  .     249 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS  XV 

PAGE 

WHITE  PINK 253 

HAIRY  WOODPECKER 263 

BLUE  JAY 265 

RED-TAILED  HAWK 267 

GREAT  HORNED  OWL      .         .        ...         .         .         .         .269 

VIRGINIA   DEER c.  280 

ELK,  OR   WAPITI 283 

MOOSE 285 

VIRGINIA  CREEPER 315 

POISON  IVY                316 


SOURCES   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

NUMBERS  9,  10,  11,  12,  19,  26,  27,  28,  29,  30,  31,  32,  33,  34, 
35,  36,  37,  44,  45,  46,  47,  48,  49,  50,  59,  and  60  are  originals, 
drawn  from  nature  by  Miss  Henrietta  G.  Fox,  of  Minneapolis. 

Numbers  3  and  4  are  originals  drawn  from  nature  by  Miss 
Josephine  E.  Tilden,  of  Minneapolis. 

Numbers  7,  8,  38,  39,  52,  and  53,  from  F.  E.  BeaPs  "Some 
Common  Birds  in  Their  Relation  to  Agriculture."  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture. 

Numbers  54  and  55,  from  A.  K.  Fisher's  "Hawks  and  Owls 
from  the  Standpoint  of  the  Farmer."  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture. 

Numbers  13,  14,  and  15,  from  Hitchcock  and  Norton's  "Weeds 
of  Kansas,  III."  In  Bulletin  No.  57,  Kansas  State  Agricultural 
College. 

Numbers  2,  5,  6,  20,  21,  22,  23,  24,  25,  42,  51,  56,  57,  and  58 
have  been  adapted  from  various  sources. 

Numbers  16,  17,  18,  and  40,  from  E.  S.  GofP's  "Noxious 
Weeds."  In  Bulletin  No.  39,  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station. 

No.  43,  from  Riley's  "  Report  on  the  Rocky  Mountain  Locust." 

xvi 


HANDBOOK   OF   NATURE   STUDY 

PART  FIRST 

I 
ABOUT   HOME.     MARCH   TO   JUNE 

INTRODUCTORY   OBSERVATION 

§  1.  The  warm  spring  sun  has  melted  the  snow,  and 
tiny  blades  of  young  grass  begin  to  appear  among  the  dead 
stalks  of  last  year.  In  sheltered,  sunny  places  we  notice 
spiders  and  insects  crawling  about,  evidently  taking  their 
first  spring  airing.  If  you  have  a  flower  garden,  your 
tulips  will  soon  be  in  bloom  and  your  shrubs  will  have 
leaves  and  flowers.  Wild  as  well  as  cultivated  fruit  trees 
will  soon  be  covered  with  white  or  rose-colored  flowers, 
filling  the  air  with  fragrance  and  attracting  thousands  of 
buzzing  bees.  If  we  observe  carefully,  we  shall  find  beetles 
and  caterpillars  feeding  on  the  tender  foliage,  as  soon  as 
the  buds  have  opened.  But  several  kinds  of  birds  have 
returned  to  us  from  the  South,  and  they  will  probably  pre- 
vent most  of  the  insects  from  becoming  too  numerous. 

§  2.    The  Common  Tulip.     Tulipa  Gesneriana. 
MATERIAL  :    Tulips  with  bulbs  ;  several  sprouting  onions. 

This  plant  grows  from  six  to  eight  inches  high.  Each 
stem  carries  only  one  flower  and  rises  from  an  onion-like 

Observations.  —  Catkins  of  poplars,  flowers  of  willows,  eggs  of  teiit- 
caterpillars. 

B  1 


2  HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

bulb.  We  shall  study  this  plant  somewhat  minutely,  because 
it  shows  nearly  all  the  parts  of  a  plant  very  clearly. 

The  beautiful  flower  consists  of  six  large,  white,  reddish 
or  yellowish  leaves.  Before  the  opening  of  the  flower  these 
leaves  are  folded  around  the  delicate  parts  inside,  arid  pro- 
tect them  from  frost  and  cold  rains. 

Within  the  bright-colored  flower  leaves  we  notice,  ar- 
ranged in  a  whirl  or  circle,  six  tiny  bags  filled  with  a 
yellow  dust,  which  adheres  to  our  fingers,  if  we  touch  one 
of  the  broken  dust  bags.  The  little  bags  are  attached  to 
delicate  thread-like  bodies,  which  we  shall  call  dust  threads, 
because  they  carry  the  flower  dust  in  the  little  bags. 

In  the  centre  of  the  flower  we  find  a  body,  which  resem- 
bles in  shape  the  pestle  of  a  very  small  mortar,  and  it  is 
therefore  called  the  pistil.  The  head  of  the  pistil  looks  as 
if  it  had  been  injured  and  were  just  healing.  This  scar- 
like  surface  is  called  the  stigma.  Now,  let  us  cut  open  the 
lower  part  of  the  pistil,  and  we  shall  find  the  small,  white 
ovules,  or  rudimentary  seeds.  The  lower  part  of  the  pistil 
is  called  the  ovary  because  it  contains  the  ovules. 

The  stem  bears  but  few  leaves,  which  always  arise  very 
close  to  the  ground.  They  are  soft  and  juicy  and  surround 
the  stem  with  their  bases.  What  is  their  shape  ?  Are  they 
rough,  hairy,  or  smooth  ? 

If  we  carefully  separate  the  leaves  of  a  growing  or 
sprouting  onion,  we  find  that  their  bases  are  widened  and 
that  each  outer  leaf  completely  encircles  the  next  inner 
one.  The  fleshy  part  is  enclosed  in  several  dry  skins, 
which  keep  the  moisture  in  the  bulb  and  also  prevent  its 
decay.  You  may  now  compare  the  structure  of  the  tulip 
bulb  with  the  structure  of  an  onion,  and  then  describe  the 
former. 

Observations.  — Reappearance  of  frogs,  frog  eggs  in  ponds  and  ditches, 
f  the  development  of  the  tadpoles. 


ABOUT   HOME  3 

§  3.   A  Few  Garden  Vegetables. 

MATERIAL  :  Seeds  of  the  bean,  pea,  cucumber,  melon,  squash, 
pumpkin ;  pickled  cucumbers,  tomatoes,  and  cauliflower ;  lettuce, 
cabbage,  kohlrabi,  asparagus,  white  celery,  turnip,  radish,  horseradish, 
carrots,  rutabagas.  See :  Some  Additions  to  Our  Vegetable  Dietary,  by 
F.  V.  Coville,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

In  our  last  lesson  we  studied  a  plant  which  we  cultivate 
in  our  gardens  on  account  of  its  beautiful  flowers ;  to-day 
we  will  take  up  several  plants  which  we  cultivate  on 
account  of  the  food  they  furnish  either  for  ourselves  or 
for  domestic  animals. 

Of  some  plants,  as  of  beans  and  peas,  we  eat  the  seeds ; 
of  the  melon,  the  cucumber,  and  the  tomato  we  eat  the 
fleshy  covering  of  the  seeds.  The  seeds  of  many  plants  are 
a  very  valuable  food  material,  because  they  can  be  pre- 
served for  an  almost  indefinite  length  of  time,  provided 
they  are  kept  dry.  How  can  we  keep  the  fleshy  parts  of 
fruits  and  vegetables  ? 

If  you  closely  examine  a  head  of  cauliflower,  you  will  find 
that  it  consists  of  thickened  flower  stalks  and  undeveloped 
flowers.  Can  you  tell  now  which  parts  of  the  cauliflower 
we  eat  ? 

Of  the  common  lettuce  we  eat  the  green  leaves,  which  we 
prepare  in  different  ways.  Can  you  tell  now  what  parts  of 
cabbage,  kale,  and  spinach  appear  on  our  tables  ?  How  many 
wild  plants  do  you  know  that  are  eaten  as  greens  ? 

Of  the  kohlrabi  we  eat  the  enlarged  succulent  stem,  and 
of  white  or  bleached  celery  the  tender  leafstalks  are  much 
relished  by  some  people. 

Turnips,  carrots,  and  rutabagas,  and  the  different  kinds 
of  beets  are  biennials,  which  means  that  they  live  two  sea- 
sons and  do  not  produce  seeds  before  the  close  of  the  second 
season.  They  store  much  food  material  in  their  large  roots, 

Return  of  the  blackbirds,  wild  ducks,  and  geese,  and  other  birds. 


4          HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

and  it  is  on  account  of  the  value  of  their  roots  that  we  culti- 
vate them.  Can  you  mention  a  root  which  we  frequently 
use  as  an  appetizer  ?  It  is  a  root  which  can  easily  bring 
the  tears  to  your  eyes. 

After  this  lesson  has  been  given,  let  the  pupils  plant  some 
beans,  peas,  cucumbers,  a  few  roots,  and  some  corn  and 
wheat,  and  let  them  carefully  observe  the  life  cycle  of  these 
plants.  Pay  special  attention  to  the  germination  of  the 
different  seeds. 

§  4.   The  Apple  Tree  and  Other  Fruit  Trees. 

MATERIAL:  Twigs  of  apple  tree,  plum,  and  cherry,  with  flowers 
and  leaves  ;  tulip  flowers  for  comparison.  Before  the  lesson  is  given, 
children  must  have  observed  how  bees  arid  other  insects  gather  honey 
and  flower  dust  on  the  blooming  trees. 

Who  of  us  has  seen  anything  more  beautiful  than  an 
orchard  in  bloom  ?  The  trees  look  as  if  they  were  covered 
with  snow,  sweet  fragrance  of  countless  flowers  meets  us 
on  the  gentle  breeze,  we  hear  the  buzzing  of  swarms 
of  busy  bees,  and  watch  them  delve  into  flower  after 
flower. 

Let  us  now  compare  the  white  or  pink  flowers  of  the 
apple  tree  with  the  flowers  of  the  tulip.  We  find  five 
beautiful  flower  leaves,  which  together  form  the  crown  or 
corolla  of  the  flower.  Can  you  tell  why  we  might  call  them 
the  crown  ?  Under  the  corolla  leaves  we  find  five  small 
green  leaflets.  These  are  called  the  cup,  because  in  many 
flowers  they  are  grown  together  and  form  a  small  cup. 
Within  the  corolla  leaves  we  find  a  great  many  little  dust 
threads,  and  in  the  centre  is  a  tiny  pistil  with  a  scar  on 
top.  How  do  the  tulip  and  apple  blossoms  differ  ? 

Besides  the  flowers  we  find  green  leaves  on  the  twigs. 
These  leaves  have  a  saw-toothed  margin.  How  do  these 

Observations.  —  Appearance  of  blow-flies,  mosquitoes,  and  other  insects ; 
return  of  the  swallows. 


ABOUT  HOME  5 

leaves  differ  from  tulip  leaves  ?  How  do  these  twigs  differ 
from  the  stem  of  the  tulip  ? 

The  twigs  and  branches  of  the  apple  tree  generally  form 
a  large  bushy  top,  which  is  supported  by  a  short,  stout  trunk. 
Why  do  you  think  the  trunk  must  be  so  strong?  What 
other  fruit  trees  do  we  often  find  in  an  orchard  ? 

Bees  and  other  insects  come  to  the  flowers  to  get  the 
honey  out  of  them.  Try  to  find  the  little  drops  of  honey. 
While  they  are  collecting  honey,  they  often  carry  some  of 
the  dust  of  one  blossom  and  accidentally  brush  it  off  on  the 
scar  of  another  blossom.  (The  children  must  see  this  and 
find  the  flower  dust  on  the  bees.)  Do  insects  ever  eat  the 
ripe  apples  ? 

§  5.  The  apple  tree  is  really  the  fruit  tree  of  the  northern 
half  of  our  temperate  zone.  In  most  of  the  Middle  States 
large  quantities  of  apples  are  produced  every  year,  while 
only  a  few  varieties  will  do  well  in  some  of  the  North- 
western States.  Apples  will  keep  for  a  longer  time  than 
most  other  fruits,  and  can  therefore  be  shipped  to  great  dis- 
tances. They  are  also  sold  dried  and  canned.  The  juice  of 
apples  may  be  pressed  out  and  made  into  cider.  We  must 
watch  the  fruit  growing  after  the  blossoms  have  faded. 

In  some  parts  of  our  country  wild  apple  trees  grow  in  the 
woods  ;  but  their  fruit  is  very  much  smaller  than  that  of  the 
cultivated  trees. 

In  order  to  make  sure  that  a  fruit  tree  shall  bear  choice 
fruit,  the  young  tree  is  cut  off  slantingly  when  it  is  only  a 
few  feet  high.  Now  a  twig  of  the  desired  variety  of  fruit 
is  cut  in  the  same  way  and  securely  tied  with  its  cut  surface 
upon  the  cut  surface  of  the  young  tree.  If  the  operation 
is  successful,  the  twig  and  tree  will  grow  together  an*d 
later  the  tree  will  bear  the  kind  of  fruit  which  the  twig 

Keep  some  tadpoles  in  your  aquarium  and  watch  their  growth. 


6          HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

would  have  borne  if  it  had  remained  on  its  own  tree.  This 
process  of  improving  the  fruit  of  trees  is  called  grafting. 
If  only  a  bud  is  transferred  from  one  tree  to  another,  it  is 
called  budding.  There  is  quite  a  number  of  methods  of 
grafting  besides  the  one  described.  In  a  tree  thus  im- 
proved, the  roots  of  the  wild  stem  furnish  the  moisture  and 
mineral  food,  while  the  transferred  twig  develops  into  the 
flowering  and  fruit-bearing  top. 

§  6.  The  Apple-tree  Tent  Caterpillar.  Clisiocampa  Ameri- 
cana. 

MATERIAL  :  Eggs  and  caterpillars  with  tent ;  May  beetles,  or  June 
bugs  and  their  larvae,  if  procurable  ;  several  twigs  with  leaf-lice  on 
them.  Try  to  find  some  lady  bugs  and  their  larvae  feeding  on  leaf- 
lice.  Keep  some  of  the  caterpillars  in  your  observation  box  ;  have  the 
children  feed  them,  and  observe  their  development.  Describe  the 
moth,  if  you  get  any. 

Gardeners  and  farmers  have  to  fight  a  great  many  insect 
pests.  Some  of  these  insects  lived  on  wild  plants,  before 
our  country  was  settled,  but,  like  the  potato  beetle,  have 
now  taken  to  eating  cultivated  plants.  Others,  like  the 
white  cabbage  butterfly,  have  been  accidentally  brought  over 
from  Europe. 

To-day  we  shall  study  the  tent  caterpillar,  which  has 
spread  over  nearly  the  whole  of  the  United  States. 

In  the  month  of  July  a  small,  reddish-brown  moth  lays 
about  three  hundred  eggs,  which  are  fastened  in  the  shape 
of  a  ring  around  the  small  twigs  of  fruit  trees.  The  eggs  are 
firmly  glued  together  and  covered  with  a  kind  of  varnish. 
The  next  spring,  about  the  time  the  leaves  begin  to  grow 
on  the  trees,  the  caterpillars  hatch,  make  their  first  meal 
on  the  glue  with  which  the  eggs  are  covered,  and  then 
ttiey  begin  to  eat  the  tender  young  leaves,  and  to  weave  a 
little  tent.  Into  this  tent  they  crawl  towards  evening 

Observations.  — Flowers  of  maples,  box  elder,  and  piues. 


ABOUT   HOME  7 

and  remain  in  it  during  cold  and  stormy  weather.  As  the 
caterpillars  grow,  they  make  their  house  larger.  They 
have  a  very  good  appetite,  and  if  they  happen  to  live  on  a 
small  tree,  they  sometimes  strip  it  entirely  of  its  leaves. 

In  about  live  or  six  weeks  they  are  full  grown.  Describe 
some  full-grown  specimens.  Note  their  size,  color,  hairs, 
legs,  etc.  Now  they  leave  the  trees  and  hide  separately  in 


FIG.  1.   APPLE-TREE  TENT  CATERPILLAR. 
Eggs,  tent,  caterpillar,  cocoons,  and  moth.    All  reduced.     After  Comstock. 

some  sheltered  place,  as  under  the  cap-boards  of  fences. 
Here  they  spin  a  cocoon  of  yellow  silk,  and  in  this  the 
caterpillar  changes  into  a  chrysalis. 

Within  two  or  three  weeks  the  chrysalides  change  to 
moths,  which  break  through  the  cocoon  and  escape.  The 
moths  do  not  eat  anything;  they  lay  their  eggs  and  then 
die,  after  they  have  lived  only  a  few  days.  Have  you  ever 
seen  butterflies  eating  anything  ?  What  does  the  chrysalis 
eat  ?  You  may  find  these  caterpillars  on  various  trees,  but 
especially  on  the  apple  tree,  the  wild  cherry,  and  the  wild 
plums.  There  are  other  species  of  tent  caterpillar  which 

Let  the  children  plant  beans,  cucumbers,  etc.,  outdoors  or  in  pots  and 
boxes. 


8          HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

live  on  different  forest  trees.     Find  some  other  caterpillars 
and  feed  them  in  an.  observation  box. 

Remedies.  —  The  tent  is  easily  seen  and  should  be  de- 
stroyed early  in  the  morning  or  after  sunset.  The  caterpil- 
lars seldom  leave  the  nest  before  9  A.M.  A  sharp,  practised 
eye  can  also  easily  find  the  egg  clusters  in  winter. 

NOTE  TO  TEACHER.  —  If  you  cannot  procure  this  insect,  you  might 
take  the  white  cabbage  butterfly  instead. 

§  7.   Plant  Lice  or  Aphids. 

MATERIAL  :  Twigs  of  apple,  cherry  and  other  trees  infested  by 
plant  lice  ;  different  kinds  of  lady  bugs  and  their  larvae  feeding  on  the 
plant  lice. 

Almost  as  soon  as  the  leaves  of  apple  and  cherry  trees 
are  out,  we  find  some  of  the  young  shoots  infested  by  very 
small,  yellowish-green  or  dark  insects.  Sometimes  they 
literally  cover  shoots  and  leaves.  They  have  a  small  suck- 
ing beak  like  a  mosquito,  and  injure  the  plants  by  sucking 
their  juice.  The  attacked  leaves  generally  become  twisted 
or  curled,  and  thus  even  furnish  shelter  for  their  enemies. 
These  little  pests  are  found  on  very  many  wild  and  culti- 
vated plants.  You  may  have  noticed  some  peculiar  swell- 
ings on  the  leafstalks  of  cotton  wood  trees.  If  you  open 
these  bulbs,  you  will  find  them  full  of  plant  lice. 

In  early  spring  the  aphids  are  wingless,  but  later  in  the 
season  there  are  some  with  wings,  and  these  fly  to  other 
plants  and  become  the  founders  of  new  colonies.  Late  in 
fall  eggs  are  laid  on  the  buds  of  food  plants.  These  eggs 
can  endure  the  frost,  and  hatch  the  following  spring. 

Most  aphids  secrete  a  sweet  fluid,  by  which  bees,  flies, 
and  ants  are  attracted.  You  may  sometimes  find  the  leaves 
of  box  elders  and  other  trees  almost  covered  with  this 

Observations. — Pay  special  attention  to  germination  and  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  seedlings. 


ABOUT   HOME  9 

honey;  thousands  of  bees  and  flies  then  buzz  about  such 
trees.  You  have  no  doubt  seen  ants  on  the  colonies  of 
aphids.  Ants  will  eat  almost  any  insect  they  can  kill,  but 
to  the  aphids  they  go  to  get  honey ;  they  even  keep  some  of 
them  over  winter  in  their  burrows. 

Remedies.  —  If  trees  and  shrubs  are  sprayed  with  strong 
soap-suds,  weak  lye,  or  tobacco  water,  as  soon  as  the  lice 
begin  to  appear,  very  many  of  them  will  be  killed.  They 
cannot  be  made  to  eat  Paris  green.  Why  not  ?  If  they 
appear  on  house  plants,  the  latter  may  be  fumigated  in  the 
following  manner :  Put  the  plants  into  some  closet  or 
room  which  can  be  closed,  then  burn  some  moist  tobacco  or 
tobacco  refuse  in  the  closed  room  or  closet.  If  fumigated 
too  long  or  too  strongly,  the  plants  are  apt  to  be  injured. 

NOTE  TO  TEACHER. — For  a  detailed  description  about  remedies 
for  insect  pests,  diseases  of  plants  and  animals,  noxious  weeds,  etc., 
consult  the  reports  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  of  your 
own  state  and  the  Farmers'  Bulletins,  published  by  the  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.  These  reports  and  bulletins  con- 
tain much  valuable  and  practical  information,  and  every  teacher, 
gardener,  and  farmer  should  send  for  a  list  of  them  and  procure  those 
which  interest  him.  They  are  sent  free  to  any  one  who  applies  for 
them. 

§  8.    Some  Insects  that  are  Beneficial  to  Man. 
MATERIAL  :  Ladybugs  as  in  §  7. 

If  insects  had  no  enemies,  which  eat  them  and  their  eggs, 
and  if  the  weather  was  always  favorable  for  them,  they 
would  soon  become  so  numerous  that  they  would  kill  all 
the  plants  on  which  they  feed. 

You  know  that  many  birds  eat  insects,  but  one  insect 
often  eats  another.  Certain  kinds  of  small  flies  lay  their 
eggs  on  caterpillars,  and  when  the  little  maggots  hatch,  they 
eat  themselves  into  the  caterpillar,  make  him  sickly,  and 

Watch  the  growth  of  blue  flags  near  ponds  and  lakes. 


10          HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

often  cause  his  death.  If  he  lives  long  enough  to  change 
into  a  chrysalis,  the  little  maggots  still  live  in  him  and 
finally  kill  him,  before  he  can  change  into  a  butterfly.  The 
little  maggots  then  remain  in  the  chrysalis  until  they  have 
transformed  themselves  into  flies.  These  little  flies  are 
either  Ichneumon  Flies  or  Tachina  Flies.  Nearly  every 
caterpillar  has  one  or  more  of  these  little  flies  as  his  special 
enemies.  If  you  open  a  considerable  number  of  chrysalides, 
you  are  very  apt  to  find  the  little  flies  or  their  cocoons  in  them. 
Another  class  of  very  useful  insects  are  the  Ladybirds  or 
Ladybugs.  You  will  often  find  them  and  their  larvae  on 

plant  lice,    which  they 
devour  by  the  dozen. 

Besides  the  insects 
eaten  by  birds  and  de- 
stroyed by  other  insects, 
a  great  many  are  killed 
by  frost  and  by  cold, 
rainy  weather.  Some- 

FIG.  2.    LADYBUG  AND  LABV^  ON  ROSE   times     tliey      starve     in 
LEAF.  great  numbers,  because 

their    food    gives     out. 

What  becomes  of  the  millions  of  insects  when  cold  weather 
sets  in?  Where  do  they  come  from  in  spring?  Try  to 
answer  these  questions  for  a  few  insects  by  your  own 
observation. 

NOTE  TO  TEACHER. — For  a  more  detailed  account  of  the  insects 
just  studied,  see 

Oomstock.     Manual  for  the  Study  of  Insects. 
Harris.     Insects  Injurious  to  Vegetation. 
Saunders.     Insects  Injurious  to  Fruits. 

For  injurious  insects  in  your  neighborhood,  see  your  State  Reports,  or 
write  to  your  state  entomologist,  sending  specimens  with  your  in- 
quiry. See  also,  A  Study  in  Insect  Parasitism,  by  L.  O.  Howard, 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 


ABOUT  HOME  11 

§  9.    The  Robin.    Merula  migratoria. 

MATERIAL:  If  possible,  mounted  robin  or  colored  picture;  nest  of 
previous  season,  but  well  preserved.  Pupils  must  have  observed  out- 
doors :  Arrival  of  robins,  building  of  nests,  song,  and  food. 

NOTE  TO  TEACHER.  —  For  your  own  information  about  birds,  con- 
sult : 

Mabel  0.   Wright.    Birdcraft :  A  field-book  of  two  hundred   Song, 

Game,  and  Water  Birds. 
Grant.     Our  Common  Birds,  and  How  to  Know  Them. 

The  report  on  the  birds  of  your  state,  if  one  has  been  published. 

Who  of  us  has  not  been  happy,  when,  in  the  latter  part  of 
March,  he  saw  a  robin  perched  on  the  top  of  a  tree  and  was 
charmed  by  its  cheerful  song,  which  seemed  to  assure  him 
that  spring  has  actually  arrived?  As  the  harbinger  of 
spring,  we  all  love  the  robin. 

From  the  tip  of  his  bill  to  the  end  of  his  tail  he  measures 
about  ten  inches.  His  yellow  bill  contrasts  strongly  with 
the  black  head  and  olive-gray  back.  His  tail  is  black,  but 
we  know  him  best  by  his  brick-red  breast,  which  has  earned 
him  the  name  of  Robin  Redbreast.  If  you  have  sharp  eyes, 
you  will  detect  that  in  the  fall  our  robin  assumes  a  paler 
garb,  as  very  many  birds  do.  The  female  robin  is  always 
paler  in  color  than  the  male.  Can  you  distinguish  male  and 
female  of  the  Rose-breasted  Grosbeak  and  the  Scarlet 
Tanager  ?  Is  it  of  any  advantage  to  female  birds  not  to 
have  as  bright  a  plumage  as  the  males  ?  Compare  the  color 
of  males  and  females  among  our  domestic  fowls. 

Very  early  in  the  morning,  before  sunrise,  the  robin  be- 
gins his  song,  together  with  many  other  birds.  He  con- 
tinues to  sing  until  about  the  middle  of  July.  Mrs.  Wright 
has  translated  his  song  into  words.  She  hears  him  say, 
"  Cheerily,  cheerily,  cheer  up,  cheer  up ! "  or,  "  Do  you 
think  what  you  do,  do  you  think  what  you  do,  do  you 
thi-n-k  ?  "  How  would  you  put  his  song  into  words  ? 


12         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

If  he  is  not  molested  by  cats  and  bad  boys,  the  robin 
seems  to  be  fond  of  man's  society.  I  have  found  his  nest 
within  ten  feet  of  the  house,  where  a  farmer  and  mem- 
bers of  his  family  worked  and  passed  to  and  fro  all  day 
long.  I  noticed,  however,  that  he  tried  to  leave  and  ap- 
proach the  nest  unseen.  Where  is  his  nest  usually  placed, 
and  of  what  is  it  made  ?  What  sound  does  the  robin  make 
when  you  alarm  or  frighten  him  ?  How  many  eggs  are  laid 
in  the  nest  ?  Of  what  color  are  they  ? 

The  robin  feeds  on  all  kinds  of  worms  and  insects.  Watch 
him  running  along  on  the  grass  catching  crawling  and  fly- 
ing insects  and  sometimes  pulling  a  worm  out  of  the  ground. 
It  is  true  that  he,  like  his  cousins  the  Catbird  and  Brown 
Thrush,  is  very  fond  of  berries.  But  should  we  not  be  will- 
ing to  pay  gladly  this  trifle  for  his  music  and  his  company  ? 
Once,  when  a  late  fall  of  snow  had  caught  many  of  our  sum- 
mer birds,  I  saw  a  robin  greedily  eat  crumbs  of  bread  thrown 
on  a  cleared  place. 

You  must  watch  a  pair  of  robins  from  the  time  they  be- 
gin to  build  their  nest  until  the  young  leave  the  nest. 
Make  careful  notes  of  your  observations  and  afterwards 
connect  them  into  the  form  of  a  composition. 

§  10.   The  Garden  Rose. 

MATERIAL  :  Twigs  and  flowers  of  different  kinds  of  garden  roses 
and  wild  roses  ;  fresh  hips  and  hips  of  last  season  ;  twigs  of  wild  plum 
with  thorns.  The  children  should  have  observed  the  breaking  of  the 
buds  and  the  opening  of  the  flowers,  before  the  lesson. 

If  we  were  asked  which  one  of  all  the  flowers  we  think 
most  beautiful,  most  of  us,  I  think,  would  vote  for  the  Rose 
as  the  Queen  of  Flowers.  Here  we  have  them  large  and 
small,  deep  red,  snow-white,  blushing  pink,  and  yellow. 
Even  in  the  wild  roses  of  the  prairie  and  the  woods,  we  find 
an  unlimited  variety  of  most  delicate  hues. 


UNIVERSITY  1 
ABOUT   HOME  J  13 


Before  the  delicate  flower  opens,  it  is  enclosed  by  the 
green  cup  or  calyx,  which  ends  in  five  leaflets.  These  are 
bent  back  in  the  open  flower.  Within  the  calyx  the  wild 
roses  have  five  corolla  leaves  or  petals,  while  the  cultivated 
species  have  a  large  number  of  petals.  Inside  the  petals  we 
find  a  ring  of  dust  threads,  carrying  the  yellow  dust  bags. 
The  dust  threads  are  generally  called  stamens,  and  the  little 
bags  are  called  anthers.  In  the  cultivated  roses  many  of 
the  stamens  with  their  anthers  have  been  changed  to  petals. 
Where  are  the  stamens  inserted?  In  the  centre  of  the 
flower  you  see  a  bundle  of  tiny  pistils.  Are  these  more  dis- 
tinct in  the  wild,  or  in  the  cultivated  kinds  ? 

After  the  beautiful  flower  has  faded  and  the  delicate  petals 
have  dropped  to  the  ground,  the  globular,  or  pear-shaped 
calyx  of  the  wild  roses  continues  to  grow,  and  within  it  grow 
the  hard  seeds.  We  shall  examine  some  of  these  hips  later 
in  the  season.  Late  in  fall,  when  frost  has  killed  flowers 
and  leaves,  these  red  hips  still  adorn  the  wild  bushes.  Many 
cultivated  roses  bear  no  seeds.  How  could  you  propagate 
them? 

Even  the  leaves  of  the  rose  are  beautiful.  The  whole 
leaf  consists  of  five  or  more  leaflets,  and  each  leaflet  has  a 
nicely  saw-toothed  margin.  A  leaf  consisting  of  two  or 
more  leaflets  is  called  a  compound  leaf.  The  leaves  of  the 
rose  and  of  clover  are  compound ;  those  of  the  tulip  are  sim- 
ple. Compare  the  leaves  of  a  number  of  plants,  when  you 
stroll  through  the  woods  or  over  the  prairie.  Did  you  find 
any  insects  which  seem  to  make  the  leaves  and  flowers  of 
the  rose  their  pasture  ?  Are  they  beneficial  or  injurious 
to  it  ? 

The  stem  of  the  rose  is  woody  and  lives  several  years. 
Some  roses  are  low  shrubs,  others  are  quite  tall,  and  some 
climb  on  trees  or  walls.  You  have  all  heard  the  proverb : 
"No  rose  without  thorns."  Botanists  call  these  thorns 


14          HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

prickles.  Do  they  grow  out  of  the  wood  or  from  the  bark  ? 
Here,  on  the  twigs  of  the  plum  and  the  hawthorn,  you  can 
see  some  real  thorns,  or  spines.  See  if  you  can  show  that 
they  are  connected  with  the  wood  and  are  really  stunted 
branches.  Of  what  use  might  prickles  and  thorns  be  to 
plants  ?  Examine  the  stems  of  young  trees  and  shrubs  in 
any  thicket  in  early  spring,  and  you  will  find  that  the  rab- 
bits have  peeled  off  the  bark  of  many  species ;  that  they 
have  cut  off  and  eaten  the  smooth  branchlets  of  roses,  but 
that  they  have  touched  the  prickly  stems  of  roses  and  green 
brier  very  sparingly.  Can  you  find  evidence  that  other  ani- 
mals besides  rabbits  have  injured  shrubs  and  young  trees  ? 
All  our  wild  roses  are  hardy  shrubs  well  able  to  winter 
in  the  regions  where  they  grow.  They  increase  by  seeds 
and  also  by  rootstocks.  Many  garden  roses  need  some  pro- 
tection during  our  Northern  winters.  Gardeners  generally 
raise  the  cultivated  roses  from  slips  or  cuttings.  They  also 
employ  grafting  and  budding  on  roses  and  other  ornamental 
shrubs  as  well  as  on  fruit  trees. 

§  11.   Review  and  Summary. 

We  have  observed  that  some  flowers  do  not  grow  wild, 
but  grow  only  in  our  gardens,  where  we  take  care  of  them. 
If  we  did  not  sow  or  plant  them  every  spring,  most  of  them 
would  soon  disappear.  Do  you  not  think  that  many  of  our 
wild  flowers  are  so  beautiful  that  they  deserve  a  place  in 
our  gardens  ?  In  Europe,  our  Goldenrods,  the  Butterfly 
Weed  (a  milkweed,  Asdepias  tuberosa),  the  Sumach,  and 
other  flowers  and  shrubs  are  cultivated  in  gardens. 

Cultivation  has  brought  about  many  changes  in  plants. 
The  fruits  have  become  larger  and  sweeter.  In  some,  as 
the  seedless  orange,  the  seeds  have  entirely  disappeared. 
In  many  plants,  the  flowers  have  become  double  and  larger, 
but  are  often  sterile.  What  change  has  been  effected  in 


ABOUT   HOME  15 

the  cabbage,  cauliflower,  and  kohlrabi  ?  What  becomes  of 
the  edible  parts  of  these  plants  if  they  are  left  in  the 
garden  over  winter  ?  Do  these  fleshy  parts  begin  to  grow 
again  if  you  winter  the  plants  in  the  cellar  and  plant  them 
out  next  spring  ?  When  do  the  vegetables  you  have  studied 
produce  flowers  and  seeds  ? 

If  possible,  compare  the  flowers  of  turnips,  radishes,  ruta- 
bagas, cabbage,  mustard,  cauliflower,  and  kohlrabi.  Do  you 
find  any  remarkable  similarity  ? 

Many  unbidden  guests  help  themselves  to  our  fruits  and 
vegetables  or  eat  the  leaves  of  our  plants.  Among  them 
are  caterpillars  and  beetles.  The  Forest  Tent  Caterpillars 
sometimes  become  so  numerous  that  whole  acres  of  woods 
are  stripped  of  leaves  and  many  trees  killed.  If  fruit  trees 
are  denuded  of  their  leaves,  they  cannot  bear  fruit,  but 
must  produce  new  leaves  or  die. 

In  fighting  our  insect  enemies,  many  birds,  and  even  some 
insects,  come  to  our  assistance.  It  is  therefore  to  our  interest 
to  protect  these  birds  and  insects  as  much  as  we  can. 

Many  insects  come  to  the  flowers  for  honey,  but  inciden- 
tally they  carry  the  pollen  of  one  flower  to  the  pistil  of  an- 
other. This  transfer  of  pollen  from  one  flower  to  another 
is  called  'cross-fertilization.  As  many  flowers  are  so  con- 
structed that  they  cannot  fertilize  themselves,  but  depend 
entirely  upon  insects  for  fertilization,  such  insects  render 
a  great  service  to  the  plant.  If  the  pistil  of  a  plant  does 
not  receive  pollen  in  some  way,  then  that  plant  will  not 
produce  any  seeds. 

EXPLANATION  OF  SOME  BOTANICAL  TERMS  :  — 

1.  The  Calyx,     The  cup.  —  It  forms  the  green  covering 
of  the  flower  bud,  and  is  found  under  the  corolla,  after  the 
flower  has  expanded. 

2.  The  Corolla,     The  crown.  —  The  bright-colored  leaves 
or  the  tube  within  the  calyx. 


16         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

3.  The  Stamens.  —  The  dust  threads. 

4.  The  Pistil.  —  The  part  or  parts  of  a  flower  which  con- 
tain the  rudimentary  seeds.     Pistils  are  the  central  organs 
in  common  flowers. 

5.  Sepals.  —  Parts  or  lobes  of  the  calyx. 

6.  Petals.  —  Parts  or  lobes  of  the  corolla. 

7.  Anthers.  —  The  dust  bags. 

8.  Stigmas.  —  The  scars  or  lobes  of  the  pistil. 


II 

POND,  LAKE,  AND  STREAM.  MAY  TO  JULY 

NOTE  TO  TEACHER.  —  A  walk  to  a  place,  where,  at  least,  several  of 
the  features  mentioned  below  can  be  seen,  must  precede  this  lesson. 

MATKRIAL  :  Twigs  of  willows,  alder,  tamarack,  dogwood,  rushes, 
wild  rice,  sagittaria,  water  lilies,  and  other  aquatic  plants;  various 
aquatic  insects.  Place  some  stagnant  water  in  a  glass  and  notice  the 
large  number  of  very  small  animals  in  it.  The  children  should  have 
observed  the  swimming  and  diving  of  ducks  and  geese. 

§  12.  Near  standing  and  running  water,  we  find  the 
plants  entirely  different  from  those  on  high  ground. 
Poplars  grow  on  the  moist  slope  and  willows  frequently 
form  thickets  in  swamps  and  near  streams  and  lakes. 
Other  characteristic  plants  are  the  tall  grasses  and  rushes, 
which  fringe  our  lakes  and  rivers  and  often  entirely  cover 
marshes  and  ponds.  All  of  you  know  the  beautiful  cat- 
tails, of  which  the  boys  sometimes  make  torches  by  dipping 
them  into  kerosene,  and  you  have  also  observed  the  tall, 
round  rush,  which  grows  in  streaks  and  patches  in  our 
lakes,  where  the  water  is  from  two  to  six  feet  deep. 
Where  the  lake  or  pond  has  a  muddy  bottom,  you  found 
the  lovely  water  lilies  with  their  large  leaves  floating  on 
the  surface.  You  also  found,  in  shallow  places,  very  small 
roundish  green  leaves  with  very  short  rootlets,  that  did 
not  reach  down  into  the  mud.  These  little  plants  are 
called  duckweeds.  Along  the  shore  we  found  many  frogs. 

Observations.  —  Along  roads,  streets,  railroads,  on  ploughed  fields,  and 
near  streams,  find  places  where  running  water  has  washed  some  of  the  soil 
away. 

c  17 


18         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

When  they  saw  us  approaching,  they  jumped  into  the  water, 
but  turned  right  back  to  shore.  I  wonder  whether  the  boys 
can  tell  us  why  the  frogs  were  sitting  along  the  shore. 
Why  do  they  not  go  far  into  the  lake  or  river  ?  In  quiet 
shallow  places  we  noticed  several  kinds  of  small  animals 
wriggling  or  darting  about.  The  minnows  and  young  fish 
live  on  these. 

If  we  can  hide  near  the  shore  of  a  large  pond  or  lake,  we 
may  see  some  wild  ducks  alight  on  the  water.  They  swim 
about  very  gracefully  and  search  for  food,  which  consists  of 
small  fishes,  insects,  roots  of  water  plants,  and  wild  rice. 

Have  you  ever  seen  the  Great  Blue  Heron  fishing?  I 
believe  he  catches  more  fish  than  many  a  small  boy. 

The  Blackbirds  and  Bobolinks  made  the  bushes  and  reeds 
lively  with  their  song,  but  when  we  approached  their  nests, 
they  gave  us  a  sound  scolding  and  seemed  very  much  inclined 
to  fight  us.  Why  are  the  mosquitoes  so  abundant  about  lakes 
and  streams  ? 

§  13.   Willows  and  Poplars. 

MATERIAL  :  Twigs  and  fruit  catkins  of  different  willows  and  pop- 
lars ;  flower  catkins,  if  still  to  be  found. 

NOTE  TO  TEACHER.  —  It  is  not  necessary  to  give  any  specific  names 
of  willows  to  the  children.  The  family  is  easily  recognized  by  the 
flowers  ;  but  it  is  often  difficult  to  distinguish  the  numerous  species. 

Very  soon  after  the  snow  had  melted,  we  found  the  pretty 
pussy  willows.  When  we  examined  them  closely,  we  were 
a  little  surprised  to  find  two  kinds,  but  only  one  kind  on  the 
same  bush  or  tree.  The  catkins  on  some  bushes  consisted 
entirely  of  tufts  of  stamens  with  large  yellow  or  reddish 
anthers,  while  on  others  they  consisted  of  small  greenish 
ovaries,  with  little  scars  or  stigmas  on  top.  Honeybees, 

Observations.  —  Try  to  find  the  places  where  some  of  this  soil  was  again 
deposited. 


POND,  LAKE,  AND  STREAM 


19 


bumblebees,  and  other  insects  carried  the  dust  or  pollen 
from  the  sterile,  or  staminate  flowers  to  the  fertile,  or  pistil- 
late ones.  Why  did  the  bees  visit  the  willows  ? 

After  the  insects  had  fertilized  the  pistils,  the  seeds  in 
them  grew,  and  many  of  the  little  pods  are  opening  and  the 
tiny  seeds  which  are 
attached  to  a  tuft  of 
delicate  cotton  are  car- 
ried off  by  the  wind 
and  scattered  far  and 
wide.  If  they  happen 
to  drop  on  moist  soil, 
the  young  trees  soon 
begin  to  grow. 

From  the  twigs  and 
leaves  we  have  gath- 
ered, we  see  that  there 
are  many  species  of 
willows.  Most  of  them 
have  rather  long  and 
pointed  leaves ;  some 
have  the  leaf  margins 

toothed,  in  others  they  FIG.  3.  SAGE  WILLOW.  Salix  Candida. 
are  entire.  The 
branches  of 
species  are  well  adapted  for  all  kinds  of  wickerwork. 
Your  mothers'  work-baskets  are  made  of  willow  twigs.  On 
the  prairies  they  are  often  planted  for  wind-breaks.  Most 
of  them  like  to  grow  near  the  water,  but  several  do  quite 
well  on  high  ground.  Some  are  small  bushes  and  shrubs ; 
others  are  trees  fifty  feet  high.  About  twenty  species  of 
the  willow  family  grow  wild  between  the  Atlantic  coast  and 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  quite  a  number  have  been  intro- 


lithe  rt>   staminate  catkins ;   b,  pistillate  catkins. 

About  one-half  natural  size, 
some 


Which  was  carried  farther,  the  coarse  or  the  fine  material  ? 


20 


HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 


duced  from  Europe.  Willows  grow  not  only  from  seeds, 
but  also  from  the  roots  and  from  cuttings.  Try  to  grow 
them  from  cuttings.  It  is  easy  to  cultivate  them,  but  hard 
to  kill  them.  Why  are  they  well  adapted  for  wind-breaks  ? 
Have  you  ever  seen  the  caterpillar-like  larvae  of  the  large 
sawfly  on  them  ?  (See  Minnesota  Entomologist's  Report 
for  1895.) 

§  14.    Closely   related  to   the   willows   are   the   poplars. 
Their  flower  catkins  also  appeared  very  early,  before  or  with 


FIG.  4.    QUAKING  ASP.    Populus  tremuloides. 
a,  staminate  catkins ;  &,  pistillate  catkins.    About  one-half  natural  size. 

the  leaves.     We  found  the  sterile  and  fertile  catkins  on 
different  trees,  the  same  as  on  willows,  but  the  poplar  cat- 
Observations.  —  Visit  a  stone  quarry  and  a  brick-yard. 


POND,   LAKE,   AND   STREAM  21 

kins  were  longer  and  were  hanging  down.  There  was  no 
honey  in  them  and  therefore  no  insects  were  attracted  to 
them ;  but  the  least  breeze  shook  the  long  tassels  and  car- 
ried the  pollen  from  the  staminate  to  the  pistillate  flowers. 
The  poplars  are  fertilized  by  the  wind.  Can  you  think  of 
other  plants  that  are  wind-fertilized  ? 

The  largest  poplar  is  the  Cottonwood  Poplar.  In  rich 
and  moist  soil  it  grows  very  fast,  and  sometimes  reaches  a 
height  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet.  The  seeds  of  the 
poplars  resemble  those  of  the  willows,  and  they  are  also 
disseminated  by  the  wind.  Other  common  and  well-known 
poplars  are  the  American  Aspen  and  the  Balsam  Poplar,  or 
Balm  of  Gilead. 

Which  poplars  are  planted  for  shade  and  ornament? 
Do  you  know  what  their  wood  is  used  for  ?  Can  you  see 
any  reason  why  poplars  and  willows  should  be  much  more 
common  than  butternut  and  walnut  trees? 

§  15.   The  Frog. 

MATERIAL  :  In  early  spring,  place  some  frog  eggs  in  a  fruit  jar. 
Change  the  water  about  every  third  day.  Take  the  water  out  of  a 
brook  or  pond  where  frogs  and  tadpoles  live.  Do  not  take  well  or 
cistern  water.  Feed  the  tadpoles  with  a  few  crumbs  of  wheat  bread 
or  water  crackers.  Later  on,  put  a  few  small  water  plants  into  the 
jar ;  change  them  when  no  longer  fresh.  When  the  legs  begin  to  grow 
on  the  tadpoles,  place  a  few  pieces  of  wood  or  a  small  ladder  into  the 
jar.  Several  species  of  frogs  in  a  fruit  jar.  The  jumping,  swimming, 
and  croaking  of  frogs  must  have  been  previously  observed  outdoors. 
You  ought  to  have  some  eggs  and  tadpoles  at  different  stages  of  de- 
velopment preserved  in  weak  alcohol. 

In  early  spring  we  found  clumps  of  frog  eggs.  Each 
egg  looked  like  a  little  ball  of  jelly,  and  had  a  dark  spot  in 
the  centre.  The  gelatinous  covering  at  first  protected  the 
real  egg  in  the  centre,  but  when  the  little  tadpole  began  to 
develop  it  fed  on  this  jelly.  What  did  it  eat  later  on  ? 

Is  the  rock  iu  the  quarry  stratified  ? 


22 


HANDBOOK  Otf  NATURE  STUDY 


The  head  of  the  young  tadpole  is  not  set  off  from  the 
body,  which  fact  gives  the  little  wiggler  the  appearance  of 
being  simply  head  and  tail.  A  margin  of  skin  is  attached 
to  the  upper  and  to  the  lower  side  of  the  tail  and,  acting 
like  a  tin,  enables  the  animal  to  swim  about  freely.  On 
both  sides  of  the  head  we  see  little  appendages.  These  are 
the  gills,  and  with  them  the  animal  can  breathe  the  air  which 
is  in  water.  But  while  the  body  grows,  the  gills  shrink  and 
soon  disappear.  Now  the  animal  breathes  through  lungs, 
which  have  grown,  while  the  gills  were  shrinking.  But  we 
noticed  some  more  wonderful  changes.  A  pair  of  hind  legs 


FIG.  5.    FROG  EGGS  AND  TADPOLES. 

1,  frog  eggs ;  2-4,  very  young  tadpoles ;  5-8,  older  tadpoles.    All 
except  1  reduced. 

began  to  grow,  the  tail  shrunk,  then  the  front  legs  appeared 
as  little  stumps,  and  finally  when  the  tail  had  entirely  dis- 
appeared, the  funny  little  pollywog  had  changed  into  a  cute 
little  frog. 

The  change  in  its  organs  enables  the  animal  to  lead  a  dif- 
ferent life. 

Observations.  — What  differences  do  you  notice  between  clay  and  sand? 


POND,  LAKE,  AND  STREAM  23 

The  tadpole  could  not  live  in  the  air  011  land,  because  it 
had  no  lungs,  but  the  frog  can ;  he  can  also  swim  and  dive, 
but  comes  to  the  surface  to  breathe. 

How  tadpoles  and  frogs  feed.  —  The  tadpole  in  the  pond 
eats  whatever  small  creatures  come  in  its  way  and  what- 
ever decaying  matter  it  can  find ;  but  Mr.  Frog  is  a  hunter. 
It  is  true  he  does  not  run  his  game  down ;  being  a  gentleman 
inclined  to  take  things  easy,  he  sits  down  and  waits  for  the 
game  to  come  Avithiii  reach.  Once  I  watched  a  large  green 
frog  catching  his  breakfast.  He  was  squatting  on  the  moist 
ground  near  a  brook,  when  two  large  butterflies  (some  species 
of  the  Fritillaries)  came  sailing  along  to  quench  their  thirst. 
The  frog's  large  eyes  rolled  and  seemed  to  fairly  bulge  out  of 
his  head,  and  he  raised  himself  up  to  watch  them  better. 
One  of  the  butterflies  alighted  within  about  six  inches  of  Mr. 
Greencoat.  The  frog  crouched,  crawled  up  behind  a  little 
elevation  to  within  about  three  inches  of  the  butterfly ;  then 
he  sprang  like  a  cat,  his  tongue  caught  the  insect,  a  few 
quick  movements  of  his  jaws,  and  the  butterfly,  wings  and 
all,  had  disappeared.  If  you  have  patience,  you  may  observe 
frogs  catching  all  kinds  of  insects.  On  another  occasion  I 
found  two  large  June-bugs  in  a  frog's  stomach.  The  frog's 
tongue  is  attached  in  front  and  not  behind.  In  catching  an 
insect  it  tips  over,  the  insect  sticks  to  its  slimy  surface  and 
is  drawn  into  the  large  mouth. 

We  have  seen  how  tadpoles  and  frogs  are  well  adapted  to 
find  their  food  each  in  their  own  way  and  in  their  peculiar 
condition. 

We  shall  now  try  to  find  out  what  means  the  frog  has  to 
escape  from  his  enemies  or  defend  himself  against  them. 
Ducks  and  other  water  birds  eat  frog  eggs  whenever  they 
can  find  them.  Fishes,  snakes,  and  birds  devour  thousands 
of  young  tadpoles,  although  the  little  fellows  try  their  best 

Look  for  weeds  along  roads,  in  fields  and  gardens,  and  in  waste  places. 


24         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

to  hide  in  the  mud.  Sometimes  the  ponds  dry  up  and  the 
tadpoles  die  for  want  of  water.  But  so  many  eggs  are  laid 
that  there  are  always  a  great  many  that  escape  all  perils 
and  develop  into  the  frogs  which  are  better  fitted  to  hold 
their  own  in  the  great  struggle  in  nature.  Their  life  is,  in- 
deed, not  without  trials.  Small  mammals,  many  of  the 
larger  birds,  snakes,  bass,  and  pickerel  are  always  hunting 
for  frog  steak.  Scarcely  is  the  frog  music  heard  in  ponds 
and  pools,  when  from  every  town  in  the  land  an  army  of 
small  boys  with  murderous-looking  spears  takes  the  field 
against  poor  froggy  ;  every  pool  within  walking  distance  of 
the  youngsters  is  invaded,  and  "Frog  Legs,  25^,"  appears 
on  the  bill  of  fare  in  every  restaurant.  This  warfare  against 
them  in  the  breeding  season  has  thinned  out  the  greencoats 
around  our  cities.  A  little  later  in  the  season  fishermen  use 
thousands  of  frogs  for  bait,  and  when  fall  comes,  schools 
and  colleges  demand  them  for  purposes  of  study. 

Thus  we  see  that  his  miseries  never  end,  his  enemies  are 
always  with  him.  And  yet  he  survives.  How  does  he  ?  How 
can  he  ?.  Let  us  see. 

His  brown  or  green  spotted  skin  blends  perfectly  with 
his  surroundings.  As  long  as  he  sits  still,  you  can  hardly 
discover  him  among  grasses,  leaves,  and  sticks.  He  sees 
and  hears  well,  although  he  has  no  outer  ears.  A  delicate 
membrane  behind  the  eyes  covers  the  ear  opening.  As 
soon  as  he  perceives  any  possible  enemy  coming  too  close, 
he  bounds  into  the  water,  where  he  conceals  himself  in  the 
mud  or  under  plants.  If  water  is  not  near,  he  hurries 
towards  tall  grass,  weeds,  or  brush.  How  are  his  legs  fit 
for  jumping  ?  How  for  swimming  ?  His  favorite  terri- 
tory is  the  borderland  between  high  land  and  deep  water. 
Although  he  is  a  fine  swimmer,  he  always  stays  near  the 
shore.  Why?  You  have  seen  how  the  frog  eludes  and 
escapes  his  enemies.  Has  he  any  means  to  fight  them  ? 


POND,  LAKE,  AND  STREAM  25 

How  frogs  hibernate  in  winter.  —  You  have  noticed  that  in 
late  fall,  when  insects  disappear,  most  birds  also  leave  us 
and  go  south.  The  frogs  also  disappear  at  this  time. 
Where  do  they  go  ?  They  hide  in  the  muddy  bottoms  of 
pools,  lakes,  springs,  etc.  Here  at  a  depth  where  the  frost 
of  winter  will  not  touch  them  they  sleep  a  death-like 
sleep.  They  eat  nothing  and  do  not  breathe  during  the 
whole  winter.  This  kind  of  sleep  is  catted  hibernation. 
When  the  sun  and  the  warm  south  wind  have  melted  the 
ice  from  our  waters,  the  frogs  awake  and  come  to  the  sur- 
face. The  males  begin  to  call  their  mates  by  croaking,  and 
soon  the  females  deposit  their  eggs. 

There  is  quite  a  number  of  different  kinds  of  frogs  in 
our  country.  Closely  related  to  the  common  frogs  are  the 
Toads  and  Tree  Frogs  or  Tree  Toads.  Toads  live  mostly  on 
land,  Tree  Toads  on  trees,  but  both  deposit  their  eggs  in 
water.  Frogs  and  toads  are  very  useful  animals,  because  they 
eat  a  large  number  of  injurious  insects. 

§16.    The  Mosquito. 

MATERIAL  :  Mosquitoes,  eggs,  and  larvae,  if  possible.  The  larvae, 
often  called  wrigglers,  can  be  found  in  almost  any  stagnant  pool  and 
in  rain-water  barrels.  Previously  observed :  How  mosquitoes  fill 
themselves  with  blood;  how  horses  and  cattle  try  to  rid  themselves 
of  the  pest. 

Perhaps  you  have  nrade  out  most  of  the  life  history  of 
the  mosquitoes  from  the  observations  you  have  made  in 
your  little  aquariums.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  little  rafts, 
which  float  on  the  water.  In  a  few  days  the  lower  ends  of 
the  eggs  open  and  the  larvae  escape  into  the  water.  Each 
one  of  them  has  a  little  tube  near  the  tail  end.  By  means 
of  this  tube  they  breathe.  When  they  are  at  rest,  they 
hang  with  their  heads  down  in  the  water  and  have  their 
breathing  tubes  at  the  surface  in  contact  with  the  air. 
The  larva  lives  on  decaying  matter  in  the  water ;  it  grows 


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very  fast,  and  throws  off  its  skin  several  times.  The  pro- 
cess of  shedding  the  skin  is  called  moulting.  Because  these 
larvae  swim  with  a  wriggling  motion,  we  call  them  wrigglers 
or  wigglers. 

The  wrigglers  change  into  club-shaped  pupae.  This  pupa 
has  two  breathing  tubes  attached  to  its  thorax.  It  swims 
by  means  of  two  little  appendages  on  its  tail  end.  After  a 
few  days  the  skin  of  the  pupa  splits  open  on  the  back,  and 
the  winged  mosquito  carefully  works  out  of  it.  It  rests  on 


FIG.  6.    1  arid  2,  mosquitoes ;  3,  larva ;  4,  pupa.     All  enlarged. 

the  skin  until  its  wings  have  hardened  a  little,  then  it  flies 
away. 

Now  after  we  know  the  life  history  of  this  little  pest,  we 
may  think  about  how  to  fight  them. 

It  is  plain  that  we  should  not  breed  them  in  barrels  or 
stagnant  pools  near  our  homes.  In  small  pools  the  larvae 
can  be  killed  by  a  little  kerosene  poured  on  the  water.  The 
oil  prevents  them  from  breathing. 

Smudge  fires  offer  some  protection  against  the  mosquitoes. 
Hunters  and  woodsmen  often  anoint  their  faces  and  hands 
with  a  mixture  of  mutton  tallow,  camphor,  and  oil  of  penny- 


POND,   LAKE,   AND   STREAM  27 

royal.  Different  other  mixtures  also  keep  them  off.  It  is 
only  the  female  mosquitoes  that  bite  us,  or  keep  us  awake 
by  their  music.  The  males  can  neither  bite  nor  sing. 

Can  you  tell  why  mosquitoes  are  more  common  in  a  wet 
summer  than  in  a  dry  summer  ?  Why  are  there  so  many 
in  most  wild  districts  and  comparatively  few  in  old  settle- 
ments and  in  cities  ?  Why  are  there  so  many  near  the 
water  ?  What  birds  have  you  seen  eating  them  ?  Have 
you  seen  the  large  Dragon  Flies  eat  them  ? 

§  17.   The  Swallows. 

MATERIAL  :  Pictures  of  different  swallows  or  mounted  birds.  Pre- 
viously observed :  Flying  of  swallows  about  running  and  standing 
water  ;  how  they  gather  mud  for  nest  building ;  how  they  build  their 
nests  and  feed  their  young. 

When  mosquitoes  and  flies  appear  about  our  streams  and 
ponds,  the  swallows  arrive  too.  They  travel  by  night  or  in 
the  early  morning  and  some  fine  spring  morning,  when  we 
look  out  of  our  window,  they  are  there.  All  day  long  they 
are  on  the  wing,  circling  about  near  creeks  and  ponds,  among 
cattle  and  horses,  catching  insects  in  the  air.  TJieir  long 
pointed  wings,  worked  by  strong  muscles,  never  seem  to  tire. 
But  their  feet  are  small  and  weak,  because  they  make  little  use 
of  them.  When  and  where  have  you  seen  them  sit  down  or 
perch  ?  Even  the  stingiest  farmer  can  find  no  fault  with 
these  lithe  denizens  of  the  air ;  for  not  even  a  single  berry 
do  they  ever  poach  from  his  garden,  so  exclusively  do  they 
live  on  insects. 

There  are  three  species  of  swallows  very  common  through 
the  United  States  and  Canada,  wherever  local  conditions  are 
favorable.  The  best  place  to  observe  them  is  about  their 
nests. 

The  smallest,  the  little  mouse-colored  Bank  Swallow,  or 
Sand  Martin,  lives  in  holes  excavated  into  high  river  banks, 


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HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 


in  sand  rock,  or  in  other  convenient  places.     They  are  often 
found  in  large  colonies. 

The  Barn  Swallow  has  a  beautifully  steel-blue  back,  a 
deeply  forked  tail,  is  rich  brown  below  with  an  alnust  brick- 
red  throat.  Its  nest  looks  like  a  quarter  of  a  hollow  sphere, 
and  is  attached  to  rafters  and  beams  in  barns  and  stables. 


FIG.  7.    BARN  SWALLOW. 


The  Cliff  Swallow  generally  builds  a  gourd-shaped  nest 
with  an  opening  in  the  neck.  In  settled  districts,  the  nests 
are  often  placed  in  rows  under  the  eaves  of  barns.  In  wild 
districts  the  birds  are  compelled  to  build  under  cliffs  which 
formed  their  original  homes.  This  swallow  is  also  steel- 


POND,  LAKE,  AND  STREAM  29 

blue  above,  but  dusky  white  below,  with  a  white,  crescent- 
like  frontlet. 

Watch  either  the  Cliff  or  Barn  Swallow  build  its  nest. 
Tell  how  they  do  it  and  what  material  they  use.  After  the 
eggs  are  hatched,  watch  the  parents  feed  the  young.  Do 
both  parents  feed  them  ?  How  often  do  they  return  within 
an  hour  ?  Are  the  swallows  as  wild  as  the  Great  Blue 
Heron  ?  Do  they  seem  to  love  the  neighborhood  of  man  ? 
Why? 

Early  in  August  the  swallows  begin  preparations  for  leav- 
ing this  part  of  the  country.  They  assemble  in  large  flocks; 
at  night  they  roost  on  trees.  Willow  thickets  near  lakes 
and  streams  seem  to  be  favorite  places.  In  the  summer  of 
1895  I  found  thousands  of  them  roosting  in  a  willow  thicket 
on  a  small  island  in  the  Des  Moines  River  near  Windom, 
Minn.  Where  have  you  seen  them  assemble  in  the  day- 
time? About  August  20  they  have  generally  left.  Why 
should  they  leave  so  early  ?  The  herons  do  not  leave  until 
the  middle  of  October,  and  wild  ducks  are  often  here  as  late 
as  November.  Why  ? 

Do  you  know  the  Purple  Martin  and  the  Tree  Swallow  ? 
Do  you  know  011  what  the  Chimney  Swift  and  the  Night 
Hawk  live  ?  How  do  they  catch  their  food  ? 

§  18.    The  Blackbirds. 

MATERIAL  :  Picture  of  bobolink  or  mounted  bird  ;  similar  material 
for  different  species  of  blackbirds  ;  nest  of  some  blackbirds  showing 
how  it  is  fastened  to  reeds  or  twigs  ;  some  warbler's  or  sparrow's  nest 
with  one  or  two  cowbird  eggs  in  it. 

Who  is  not  familiar  with  the  Blackbirds  ?  A  merry  tribe 
they  are  indeed ;  flying  about,  singing,  scolding,  wooing  the 
whole  summer  day !  Everybody  knows  the  large  Purple 
Grackle,  or  Crow  Blackbird;  the  Red-winged,  and  the  Yel- 
low-headed Blackbird.  In  the  nesting  season  you  will  gen- 


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HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 


erally  find  their  wives,  clad  in  modest  gray  and  brown,  near 
them,  both  males  and  females  ready  to  scold  and  fight  any 
intruder  of  their  reeds  and  rushes.  But  the  favorite  in  the 
whole  family  is  certainly  the  Bobolink.  It  is  found  in  this 
region  from  May  until  September.  The  head  of  the  male 


FIG.  8.     BOBOLINK. 

is  black,  a  patch  of  light  brown  marks  the  nape ;  but  most 
conspicuous  are  the  white  rump  and  the  white  wing  coverts. 
The  rest  of  the  body  is  black,  with  the  exception  of  the 
brown  bill  and  a  little  buff  edging  on  some  tail  and  some 
wing  feathers.  The  female  is  yellowish-brown  below  and 
is  striped  with  brown  above,  with  yellow  and  white  tips  to 


POND,  LAKE,  AND  STREAM  31 

some  feathers  on  the  rump.  After  the  young  are  hatched, 
the  male  doffs  his  clownish  dress  and  appears  in  as  sombre 
a  garb  as  the  female. 

The  nest  is  built  in  a  tussock  on  low  meadows  ;  it  consists 
mostly  of  dried  grass,  and  is  very  difficult  to  find.  If  two 
persons  drag  a  long  rope  over  a  piece  of  meadow  where  bob- 
olinks abound  and  carefully  note  where  the  birds  fly  up, 
they  may  succeed  in  finding  it.  It  contains  from  four  to 
six  brownish  or  grayish  eggs  which  are  marked  with  spots 
or  blotches  of  darker  brown. 

The  song  is  really  indescribable,  but  is  very  characteristic 
of  the  bird.  You  may  see  a  bird  nervously  trying  to  sing 
his  best  on  some  knoll ;  suddenly  he  rises  to  a  considerable 
height,  drops  down  again  into  the  grass  just  as  suddenly,  all 
the  time  bubbling  over  with  joyous  melody.  If  you  find 
the  right  meadow,  you  may  see  and  hear  a  great  many  bobo- 
links at  the  same  time. 

Later  in  the  season  the  bobolinks  are  all  plain  brownish- 
striped  birds.  They  linger  for  a  while,  rambling  about 
fields  and  meadows,  and  are  sometimes  seen  in  flocks  on 
oats,  of  which  they  are  fond.  About  the  1st  of  September 
they  begin  to  migrate  south.  They  feed  now  mostly  on 
wild  rice,  and  are  known  as  reedbirds  or  ricebirds  to  gun- 
ners, and  thousands  are  killed  for  the  market.  Do  you 
think  we  ought  to  shoot  these  beautiful  little  singers  for 
the  table,  when  we  have  so  many  large  game  birds  ? 

When  Blackbirds  become  very  numerous  in  fields,  they 
will  do  some  injury  to  grain;  but  early  in  the  season  they 
live  largely  on  insects.  It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that 
the  bobolinks  are  very  injurious  to  the  rice-growers  in  the 
South.  Thousands  of  these  ricebirds  hover  constantly 
about  the  rice  fields,  and  the  Southern  farmers  have  to 
spend  thousands  of  dollars  annually  to  keep  the  birds  from 
eating  all  the  rice  they  can  grow.  Although  boys  and 


32         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

men  hunt  and   shoot  them  daily,  their  number   has   not 
diminished. 

NOTE  TO  TEACHER.  —  Yourself  and  pupils  interested  should  send 
for  a  copy  of  Some  Common  Birds  in  their  Relation  to  Agriculture,  by 
F.  E.  L.  Beal,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin, 
No.  54.  This  valuable  pamphlet  gives  information  about  the  food  of 
more  than  twenty  of  our  common  birds,  and  contains  very  good  figures 
of  as  many  birds. 

§  19.    The  Great  Blue  Heron. 

MATERIAL  :  Picture  of  great  blue  heron  and  other  herons.  If  pos- 
sible, pupils  should  have  observed  the  great  blue  heron  in  his  native 
haunts.  The  teacher  ought  to  have  made  these  observations,  if  the 
pupils  could  not.  Visit  a  heronry  if  you  can.  Draw  a  life-size  picture 
of  the  heron  on  the  blackboard.  Substitute  some  other  member  of 
the  heron  family,  if  you  prefer. 

How  many  of  you  boys  have  ever  been  hunting  ducks  in 
September  or  have  rambled  along  lakes  and  streams  in  sum- 
mer ?  You  have  found  secluded  bays,  which  with  high 
trees  around  them,  with  tall  thin  rushes  growing  in  patches 
in  the  placid  water  and  gently  swayed  by  the  summer  breeze, 
and  with  water  lilies  peeping  out  from  amongst  the  grand, 
floating  leaves,  make  a  most  charming  picture.  If  you  are 
lucky  enough  to  see  one  or  two  Great  Blue  Herons  fishing 
in  the  shallow  water  or  frogging  along  the  shore,  then 
you  have  indeed  a  landscape  with  a  soul,  with  real,  visible 
life. 

This  magnificent  bird  stands  fully  three  feet  high.  On 
account  of  its  slate-blue  back  and  large  size,  it  is  called  the 
great  blue  heron,  or  blue  crane.  He  is  the  monarch  of 
the  lake  shore  and  the  terror  of  frogs  and  fish.  Just  as 
patiently  as  the  frog  waits  for  insects  to  approach  him,  the 
blue  heron  waits  for  fish  to  come  within  reach  of  his  long 
sharp  bill.  Or  he  walks  gravely  along  the  water's  edge  and 
spears  the  frogs  he  happens  to  hunt  up.  His  long  legs, 
neck,  and  bill  excellently  fit  him  for  this  kind  of  hunt.  He 


POND,  LAKE,  AND  STREAM  33 

sometimes  catches  a  fish  ten  inches  long.  If  he  sees  you 
watching  him,  he  will  spread  his  win^s,  slowly  rise,  and  fly 
to  some  undisturbed  spot.  How  does  his  flight  compare 
with  that  of  the  teal  ducks  ? 

A  great  many  herons  build  their  nests  close  together. 
These  colonies  are  called  heronries.  They  are  generally 
located  011  an  island  in  a  lake,  or  in  a  river  bottom.  The 
best-known  heronry  in  Minnesota  is  on  Crane  Island,  in 
Lake  Minnetonka,  about  fifteen  miles  from  Minneapolis. 
On  this  island  hundreds  of  herons  have  built  their  nests  on 
the  large  trees  for  so  many  summers  that  even  the  Indians 
could  not  tell  when  the  herons  first  came  there.  If  your 
boat  passes  the  island,  you  see  the  great  blue  herons  and 
the  black-crowned  night  herons  perched  on  the  trees 
along  the  shore ;  here  and  there  the  large  nests  appear  as 
bundles  of  sticks.  Minnetonka  is  now  the  most  popular 
summer  resort  in  Minnesota ;  large  and  small  steamers,  any 
number  of  sailboats,  and  hundreds  of  rowboats  move  about 
on  the  lake  all  summer;  still  the  herons  and  the  double- 
crested  cormorants  continue  to  inhabit  Crane  Island.  It 
was,  however,  found  necessary  to  make  them  wards  of  the 
state,  as  young  boys  and  old  fools  disturbed  the  birds  so 
much  that  their  number  began  to  decrease. 

From  their  colonies  the  blue  herons  leave  in  the  morning 
for  their  feeding  grounds.  They  often  fly  as  far  as  fifty 
miles  and  more,  but  always  return  towards  evening. 

When  it  gets  so  cold  that  frogs,  snakes,  and  slugs  seek 
their  winter  quarters,  and  the  fish  retreat  into  deeper 
waters,  then  the  cranes  leave  us,  because  they  can  no  longer 
find  their  accustomed  food. 

§  20.    Larger  Blue  Flag.     Iris  versicolor. 

MATERIAL  :  Blue  flags  with  rootstocks,  flowers,  and  seed  pods. 
Observe  :  How  insects  fertilize  the  blue  flags. 


34         HANDBOOK  Of  NATURE  STUDY 

In  April  and  early  May  the  Marsh  Marigold  is  the  most 
conspicuous  flower  in  cold,  wet  places;  but  in  May  and 
June  every  pond,  every  brook,  is  fringed  by  the  well-known 
Blue  Flags.  Sometimes  they  grow  in  the  water,  sometimes 
near  it;  but  always  in  wet  places. 

The  stems  and  leaves  grow  from  a  stout,  branched  root- 
stock,  which  remains  alive  in  the  ground.  In  very  wet  and 
rich  soil  they  grow  about  three  feet  high;  while  on  soil 
which  is  rather  poor  and  has  insufficient  moisture,  they  are 
often  not  more  than  a  foot  high. 

The  leaves  are  all  sword-shaped,  and  near  the  ground,  each 
lower  one  straddles  the  one  above  it.  Where  the  leaves 
straddle,  the  side  towards  the  stem  is  the  upper  and  the  one 
turned  away  from  it  is  the  lower  side,  and  the  leaf  is  simply 
folded  upward  along  the  sharp  ridge.  Where  the  leaves 
become  free  of  one  another,  the  two  folds  have  grown  together 
and  the  leaves  now  seem  to  stand  vertically  and  not  hori- 
zontally as  on  most  other  plants.  A  superficial  observer 
would  say  they  have  a  right  and  a  left  side,  but  only  an 
upper  and  lower  edge.  The  short  leaves  which  grow  near- 
est to  the  flowers  are  called  bracts. 

What  is  the  most  common  number  of  flowers  on  a  stem  ? 
The  flower  consists  of  three  large  outer  divisions  and  three 
smaller  inner  ones.  You  must  look  close  to  find  the  pistil 
and  the  stamens.  The  pistil  bears  three  leaf -like  styles, 
and  under  these  the  stamens  with  their  long  anthers  are 
hidden.  The  stigma  or  scar  is  quite  concealed ;  but  if  you 
look  sharply,  you  will  find  it  on  each  one  of  the  styles  as  a 
small  membrane  with  delicate  hair  and  covered  with  a  sticky 
substance.  You  will  see  at  once  that  pollen  and  stigma  of 
the  same  flower  cannot  come  in  contact.  But  when  a 
bumblebee  wishes  to  get  at  the  honey,  it  carries  away 
some  of  the  pollen  of  one  flower  and  brushes  it  off  on  the 
stigma  of  another. 


POND,  LAKE,  AND  STREAM 


35 


Find  where  the  honey  or  nectar  is  in  the  blue  flags. 
Patiently  and  closely  observe  the  bees  get  it;  lead  the 
children  to  see  and  understand  the  process,  and  then  de- 
scribe it.  Watch  the  ripening  of  the  seeds  and  find  out 


FIG.  9.    LARGER  BLUK  FLAG.    Iris  versicolor. 

a,  showing  how  a  bumblebee  enters  the  flower ;  b,  flower  with  perianth 
removed;  1,  stigmatic  membrane;  2,  a  lobe  of  the  style;  3,  an  anther. 
Both  reduced. 

how  they  are  scattered.  Do  you  know  how  seeds  of  the 
Dandelion  and  the  wild  Touch-me-not  are  disseminated  ? 
Compare  other  wild-growing  flags,  the  Blue-eyed  Grass  and 
the  Cultivated  Iris.  Let  the  children  watch  insects  on 
Milkweeds.  Catch  butterflies  on  milkweed  flowers  and  ex- 


36          HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

amine  their  claws  closely.  Small  flies  sometimes  cannot 
get  away  from  milkweed  flowers.  Try  to  find  out  what  holds 
them. 

§  21.   Review  of  Life  in  and  near  the  Water. 

If  on  your  rambles  to  ponds,  lakes,  and  meadows  you  did 
not  walk  with  dosed  eyes,  you  must  have  been  struck  by  the 
abundance  of  life,  which  seemed  to  be  everywhere. 

Poplars  and  Willows  had  taken  possession  of  the  always 
moist  soil.  A  thick  matting  of  grasses  covered  the  low 
meadows ;  only  here  and  there  some  flowers  had  managed 
to  hold  their  own  against  the  countless  hosts  of  grasses. 
Cat-tails  and  many  other  rushes  and  reeds  formed  a  perfect 
thicket  in  the  shallow  water.  Bobolinks  and  blackbirds 
made  meadow  and  rushes  lively  with  their  song. 

The  bottom  of  the  lake  was  in  some  places  entirely  cov- 
ered with  small  weeds,  that  never  rise  to  the  surface. 
Where  the  water  is  a  little  deeper,  beautiful  lilies  floated 
their  grand  leaves  and  flowers  in  the  sun. 

And  what  a  host  of  swimming,  creeping,  crawling,  wrig- 
gling animals  we  find  in  this  water.  On  the  surface,  under 
the  leaves,  among  the  weeds,  and  on  the  bottom  they  hunt 
and  play. 

On  the  very  minute  animals  and  plants  the  different 
kinds  of  larvae,  tadpoles,  and  small  fish  live,  while  they 
themselves  hide  under  the  leaves  and  in  the  weeds  when 
pursued  by  their  enemies,  the  large  fishes  and  the  birds. 

All  the  plants  mentioned  above  need  a  great  deal  of  moist- 
ure. Very  many  animals  are  attracted  to  the  water,  because 
they  also  need  it  to  live  in  and  because  the  plants  offer  them 
food  and  shelter.  If  a  lake  or  pond  dries  up  permanently, 
all  these  plants  die ;  the  animals  also  die,  if  they  cannot 
walk  or  fly  to  find  another  home. 

The  larvae  of  mosquitoes  and  flies  are  eaten  by  fish.     Flies 


POND,  LAKE,  AND  STREAM  37 

and  mosquitoes  are  preyed  upon  by  frogs  and  fish ;  and 
frogs  and  fish  are  often  caught  by  kingfishers  and  herons. 

Smaller  animals  often  serve  as  food  for  the  larger  ones. 

Flies,  mosquitoes,  and  frogs  cannot  be  easily  found  in 
the  winter.  The  first  two  hibernate  in  sheltered  places, 
such  as  cellars  and  caves ;  the  last  pass  the  winter  in  the 
mud  of  lakes  and  ponds.  As  soon  as  the  chilly  nights 
make  winged  insects  scarce,  the  swallows  leave  us.  When 
the  frogs  take  up  their  winter  quarters  and  ice  begins  to 
form  on  the  water,  the  herons  and  ducks  also  move  south. 
When  do  the  different  migratory  birds  leave  your  locality  ? 

Plant  life  also  sleeps  through  the  long,  cold  winter  in 
buds,  roots,  and  seeds.  By  the  warmth  of  spring  plants  are 
awakened  to  new  growth  and  animals  to  renewed  activity. 
Then  the  migratory  birds  return  to  their  northern  homes. 
When  do  they  arrive  in  your  locality  ? 


Ill 

GEOLOGICAL   ACTION   OF   WATER 

Visit  a  newly  formed  gulch,  ditch,  or  washout.  Field  lesson  ;  to 
be  given  a  day  or  two  after  a  heavy  rain.  See  Farmers'  Bulletin, 
No.  20,  Washed  Soils  :  How  to  Prevent  and  Reclaim  Them. 

§  22.  When  we  visited  this  place  a  few  weeks  ago,  this 
deep  ditch  was  not  here.  Can  you  tell  me  who  made  it  ? 
You  say  the  water  did  it ;  but  I  wonder  where  the  soil  is 
which  was  taken  out  here.  You  see  so  much  has  been 
taken  out,  that  a  dozen  teams  would  have  to  haul  dirt  for 
a  day,  at  least,  to  fill  up  this  hole.  Let  us  walk  down  this 
gulch  and  perhaps  we  shall  find  some  of  the  washed-out 
material  stranded  somewhere.  Here  we  are  at  the  foot  of 
the  hill ;  just  notice  all  the  fresh  stones,  gravel,  and  sand 
here.  Where  did  all  this  matter  come  from  ?  Out  of  that 
washout,  of  course.  Up  on  the  hill  we  noticed  how  the 
water  had  carried  material  away  ;  here  we  see  how  it  has 
sorted  this  material.  How  could  it  do  that?  One  day 
when  we  visited  the  brook  you  saw  that  the  water  rolled 
along  small  stones  where  the  current  was  rapid.  Now, 
when  the  torrent  rushed  down  this  run,  it  carried  small 
stones,  sand,  and  fine  mud,  all  mixed  together.  As  soon 
as  the  foot  of  this  hill  was  reached,  the  velocity  of  the  cur- 
rent decreased ;  it  could  no  longer  carry  the  larger  stones 
and  here  they  were  dropped.  A  little  farther  down,  we  find 
smaller  stones  and  gravel,  and  still  a  little  farther  down, 
you  see  the  sand  spread  out.  But  what  became  of  the  fine 

Observations.  —  Note  the  various  grasses  in  meadows  and  iii  other  places. 

38 


GEOLOGICAL   ACTION  OF   WATER  39 

black  soil,  which  has  also  disappeared  from  Mr.  Jones' 
cornfield  ?  We  do  not  see  it  here,  so  we  must  go  down  to 
the  creek ;  perhaps  we  shall  find  it  there. 

Indeed,  how  muddy  the  water  is ;  it  seems  that  a  great 
deal  of  fine,  corn-land  soil  has  been  stirred  into  this  water. 
We  will  take  a  bottle  of  this  water  and  stand  it  in  a  quiet 
place.  But  do  you  think  this  fine,  dark  soil  in  the  creek 
comes  from  Mr.  Jones'  field?  No,  I  think  not;  it  came 
from  places  farther  up  the  creek.  And  where  does  it 
go? 

Look  sharply  about  you ;  perhaps  you  can  find  the  answer 
then.  John  thinks  he  knows.  Let  us  see  what  he  has 
found.  In  this  small  low  place  the  muddy  water  stood  for 
some  time,  and  there  is  some  yet  in  the  deepest  place.  See 
how  the  soil  is  covered  with  a  layer  of  fine  mud.  The 
water  could  carry  this  along  although  its  current  was  quite 
slow,  but  when  it  became  very  slow  or  stood  still,  even  this 
fine  material  was  dropped. 

We  saw  that  the  creek  was  quite  muddy  after  the  last 
heavy  rain,  and  just  as  muddy  we  should  find  the  river  into 
which  the  creek  empties.  If  you  ever  see  some  of  our 
largest  rivers,  you  will  find  their  water  quite  muddy. 

Streams  always  carry  most  material  at  the  time  of  a 
freshet  or  flood.  Wherever  they  overflow  a  swamp,  a 
meadow,  or  dry  land,  their  current  slows  up  as  the  water 
spreads  out,  and  there  some  of  the  material  is  deposited. 
The  finer  the  material  the  farther  it  is  carried,  and  the 
very  finest  is  not  dropped  before  the  river  enters  the 
ocean.  Here  many  large  rivers,  including  the  Mississippi, 
form  large  deltas  with  the  sediment  they  carry.  The 
delta  of  the  Mississippi  contains  about  fourteen  thousand 
square  miles.  You  can  easily  see  that  all  deltas  are  grow- 

Let  the  children  see  who  can  find  the  most  species,  and  who  can  make 
the  prettiest  bouquets  of  the  ears  or  heads. 


40          HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

ing;    that  of  the  Mississippi  advances  a  mile   in   sixteen 
years. 

§  23.    The  Sand  Bank. 

Visit  a  sand  bank  formed  by  a  river  or  creek.  If  that  is  not  acces- 
sible, the  sand  spread  out  below  a  washout  will  illustrate  the  lesson. 
Have  a  gardener's  trowel  or  spade  to  dig  into  the  sand. 

Field  lesson.  —  From  observations  which  we  made  some 
time  ago,  you  can  tell  me  how  this  sand  bank  was  formed. 
Of  course,  the  river  brought  the  material  from  farther  up 
the  stream  and  deposited  it  here.  If  I  dig  a  small  hole 
into  the  sand,  you  will  see  that  it  is  arranged  in  definite 
layers  or  strata.  As  water  spreads  the  fine  sand  or  mud 
quite  uniformly,  it  could  hardly  be  otherwise.  Now  we 
will  go  back  and  dig  a  hole  on  the  high  bank,  where  the 
water  reaches  only  at  the  time  of  high  freshets.  Here, 
also,  we  find  the  soil  quite  distinctly  stratified.  After  high 
water  I  have  seen  this  bank  covered  with  a  layer  of  mud. 
As  the  river  has  been  here  thousands  of  years,  this  must 
have  occurred  many  times,  and  in  that  way  this  bottom 
land  has  been  formed.  Rivers  and  creeks,  however,  are  not 
only  depositing  sediment ;  they  are  also  cutting  away  their 
banks  all  the  time.  Often  they  deposit  on  the  left  side 
when  they  cut  on  the  right,  and  vice  versa.  By  and  by 
some  of  the  soil  is  washed  into  the  ocean,  as  we  have 
learned.  Most  of  that  soil  has  been  taken  up  and  deposited 
again  and  again  before  it  reaches  the  river's  mouth. 

Now  look  at  the  rock  which  you  see  exposed  on  the  bank 
there.  It  is  arranged  in  layers,  which  we  can  easily  trace. 
In  the  stone  quarries  which  we  visited  we  found  the  rock 
arranged  in  layers.  Wherever  water  runs  over  these  rocks, 
it  cuts  some  of  it  away,  turns  it  over  and  over,  and  grinds 
it  up  into  soil. 

Observations.  —  Try  to  find  the  flowers  of  grain  and  of  grasses. 


GEOLOGICAL  ACTION  OF  WATER  41 

But  there  is  still  another  way  by  which  rock  is  changed 
to  soil.  Water  soaks  into  cracks  and  between  the  layers. 
When  this  water  freezes  it  expands,  and  often  breaks  off 
large  pieces  of  rock.  Water  also  soaks  into  most  rocks  as 
it  does  into  a  sponge.  Some  of  the  rock  is  dissolved  like 
salt  and  carried  away,  and  by  and  by  the  hard  rock  crumbles 
into  soil.  You  can  see  this  decay  of  rocks  wherever  rock  is 
exposed  to  the  atmosphere  and  to  rain.  By  this  slow  decay 
and  tvearing  down  of  rocks  soil  is  made.  A  large  part  of  the 
soil  in  the  Mississippi  basin  has  been  made  in  this  way  from 
rock  in  the  Alleghanies  and  the  Kocky  Mountains. 

Have  you  seen  buildings  or  bridges  where  the  rock  is 
wearing  away  ? 

You  see  that  rock  sticks  out  on  both  sides  of  the  river, 
and  it  extends  for  many,  many  miles  under  the  loose  soil 
into  the  country.  In  some  places  it  comes  to  the  surface, 
sometimes  we  strike  it  not  more  than  ten  to  twenty  feet 
below,  at  other  places  it  lies  at  a  depth  of  one  or  several 
hundred  feet ;  but  we  should  find  it  everywhere  if  we  could 
go  down  deep  enough. 

We  have  just  learned,  then,  that  nearly  all  of  the  interior  of 
the  earth  is  composed  of  solid,  hard  rock.  The  loose  soil  com- 
pared with  the  whole  mass  of  the  earth  is  like  a  thin  layer  of 
dust  covering  a  large  globe.  From  observations  made  on 
high  mountains  and  in  deep  mines,  people  have  learned 
something  about  the  rocks  for  a  depth  of  about  ten 
miles. 

You  have  learned  now  how  soil  is  formed  by  water,  and 
how  ice  helps  to  split  up  the  rock.  Some  day  I  must  tell 
you  what  an  important  part  large  ice  fields,  called  glaciers, 
have  played  in  the  formation  of  soil  in  our  Northern 
States. 

Do  all  grasses  furnish  equally  good  hay  and  pasture  ? 


42         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

§  24.   How  the  Rocks  were  made. 

To-day  I  will  try  to  answer  your  questions  about  "  How 
the  rocks  came  to  be.'7  They  were  formed  or  deposited  in 
water  just  like  the  bottom  lands  and  sand  banks  we  visited. 
You  noticed  that  the  soil  grew  more  compact  as  we  dug 
down,  because  the  soil  above,  so  to  speak,  pressed  it.  Deep, 
heavy  waters  pressed  on  the  rock  above,  and  the  upper 
layers  also  pressed  on  the  lower.  This  pressure  was  one  of 
the  forces  which  made  rock  of  the  fine  mud  or  sand.  In 
many  rocks  there  is  also  some  cementing  material  which 
holds  the  particles  together,  as  lime  cement  binds  the  sand 
grains  in  mortar;  and  some  rocks  have  been  burned  hard 
like  brick.  Most  stratified  rocks  were  formed  on  the  ocean 
bottom,  by  mud  or  sand  washed  into  them  by  rivers  and 
waves.  How  do  we  know  that  ?  Much  of  this  stratified 
rock  extends  in  almost  horizontal  layers  over  thousands  of 
square  miles,  and  in  it  are  often  found  fossils  of  marine  ani- 
mals. In  some  places  stratified  rock  has  been  formed  in 
large  fresh-water  lakes.  Whenever  you  find  distinctly  strati- 
fied rock  extending  over  large  areas,  you  may  take  for  granted 
that  it  ivas  deposited  by  water  as  mud  or  sand. 

I  know  what  several  of  you  are  going  to  ask  me  now. 
You  want  to  know  where  all  this  mud  and  sand  could  come 
from.  Some  day  I  shall  tell  you  about  that.  You  may  find 
something  about  it  in  your  geographies  or  in  some  simple 
treatise  on  geology. 

If  -you  can  visit  different  kinds  of  stratified  rock,  study 
it  closely.  Can  you  easily  break  ib  with  hammer  and 
chisel,  or  is  it  so  hard  that  it  will  scratch  glass  ?  Does  it 
seem  made  of  grains  of  sand,  or  does  it  appear  like  hardened 
clay  ?  If  you  find  many  fossils  in  it,  you  most  likely  have 
a  limestone.  This  rock  has  the  peculiar  "  limey  "  taste  and 

•      Observations  —  Find  the  seeds  of  grasses. 


GEOLOGICAL  ACTION   OF   WATER  43 

smells  like  a  freshly  whitewashed  room.  Foremen  and 
owners  of  quarries  can  probably  tell  you  about  the  rock  in 
your  locality.  About  the  bowlders  which  we  find  scattered 
all  over  our  Northern  States,  we  shall  learn  later.  Do  you 
think  that  they  were  made  here,  or  that  they  came  from 
some  other  place  ?  How  could  they  be  transported  ? 

NOTE.  —  Observations  made  in  the  field  and  conclusions  reached 
must  be  thoroughly  reviewed  in  class. 


IV 
IN   THE   MEADOW.     JULY   AND   AUGUST 

MATERIAL  :  Different  kinds  of  grasses  from  high  and  low  meadows, 
from  swamps,  field,  and  garden.  In  presence  of  the  class,  wash  the 
soil  from  a  piece  of  sod.  The  names  of  species  are  not  important  in 
this  lesson. 

§  25.  When  I  asked  you  a  few  days  ago  how  many  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  grasses  you  had  found  in  the  neighboring 
meadows,  some  of  you  were  surprised  to  hear  me  speak 
about  many  kinds  of  grasses ;  but  I  see  that  you  found  more 
kinds  than  I  had  expected. 

The  most  striking  characteristic  of  the  grasses  is  their  grow- 
ing close  together  in  large  numbers  and  forming  meadows  and 
lawns. 

Most  grasses  have  a  hollow  stalk,  which  is  very  high  com- 
pared with  its  thickness.  This  stalk  is  called  a  culm.  The 
long  culm,  with  the  ear  or  head,  would  scarcely  be  able  to 
withstand  the  force  of  the  wind,  if  it  were  not  strengthened 
by  some  special  devices.  Let  us  take  a  sharp  knife  and 
make  a  number  of  cross-sections  of  the  stem  from  the  root 
upwards.  We  find  that  the  lowest  part  of  the  stem  is  the 
hardest  and  the  most  compact.  If  this  were  not  so,  the 
culms  would  easily  break  or  bend  near  the  ground,  because 
the  force  of  the  wind  is,  so  to  speak,  concentrated  there. 
Take  a  stick  which  is  of  uniform  thickness  and  strength 
from  end  to  end,  fasten  one  end  of  it ;  then  take  hold  of  the 
other  end  and  bend  the  stick  until  it  breaks.  It  will  break 

Observations.  —  Plants  of  the  cultivated  sunflower;  sow  some  sunflower 
seed  aad  compare  the  seedlings  with  older  plants. 

44 


IN  THE   MEADOW  45 

near  the  fastened  end.  Why  must  the  trunk  of  a  tree  be 
strongest  near  the  ground  ?  Why  is  a  crowbar  strongest 
near  the  lower  end?  The  culms  are  strengthened  still  more 
by  several  other  devices,  two  of  which  we  can  easily  under- 
stand. You  notice  that  the  culms  have  knots,  or  nodes,  at 
intervals,  that  these  nodes  are  solid  and  hard,  and  that  they 
are  closest  together  near  the  ground.  The  leaves  all  sur- 
round the  culm  like  a  sheath  for  a  part  of  their  length. 
These  sheaths  strengthen  the  culm  in  the  weak  points  just 
above  the  nodes.  Strip  off  the  leaf  sheaths  and  prove  that 
there  are  weak  points  just  above  the  nodes.  The  holloiv 
culms  thus  strengthened  admirably  combine  strength  with  light- 
ness and,  as  we  all  know,  are  not  easily  kneed  or  broken  be- 
fore the  seeds  are  ripe.  What  change  takes  place  in  the 
strength  of  the  culms  after  the  seeds  are  ripe  ?  Does  ripe 
grain  show  boldly  upright  ears  and  culms  ? 

Grass  culms  do  not  branch ;  their  leaves  are  almost  or  en- 
tirely linear  in  shape  and  have  parallel  veins.  Show  how 
grasses  are  enabled  to  grow  so  close  together.  How  many 
stalks  can  you  count  in  a  square  yard  of  meadow  ? 

Perhaps  it  has  never  occurred  to  you  that  grasses  have 
flowers;  but  what  we  call  ears  or  heads  are  really  their 
flowers.  None  of  them,  it  is  true,  have  a  distinct  calyx  and 
corolla ;  still,  if  we  look  just  at  the  right  time,  we  can  easily 
find  the  tiny  stamens  with  anthers  hanging  out  of  the  little 
chaff-like  scales.  The  pistils  often  end  in  delicate  little 
feathers.  You  must  try  to  find  both.  The  heads  of  grasses 
make  very  pretty  bouquets,  which  last  a  long  time,  and  need 
not  be  put  in  water.  We  shall  see  how  many  pretty  bou- 
quets we  can  collect. 

We  have  spoken  several  times  about  insects  fertilizing 
flowers  which  attract  them  by  their  bright  colors  and  by 

Look  for  plants  of  the  golden  rod,  wild  sunflower,  rosin-weed,  blazing 
star,  wild  aster,  garden  aster,  dahlia,  dandelion,  and  other  composites. 


46 


HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 


their  fragrance.     Now  we  find  that  the  flowers  of  grasses 
have  neither  bright  colors  nor  fragrance,  and  that  they  are 


FIG.  10.    BOUQUET  OF  GRASSES. 

a,  Redtop,  Agrostis  wlgaris ;  b,  Timothy,  Phleum  pratense  ;  c,  Kentucky 
Blue  Grass,  Poa  pratensis ;  d,  Squirreltail  Grass,  Hordeum  jubatwn. 
All  reduced. 

very  seldom  visited  by  insects.     Most  of  them  are  fertilized 
by  the  wind.     When  the  tiny  anthers  dangle  in  the  breeze, 

Observations.  — Examine  the  roots  of  the  plants  just  named. 


IN  THE   MEADOW  47 

the  pollen  from  one  flower  is  taken  up  and  wafted  to  the 
pistil  of  another.  If,  however,  the  wind  is  too  strong,  the 
whole  anther  may  be  shaken  off  before  the  little  dust  pouch 
has  opened ;  in  that  case  only  a  few  flowers  are  fertilized 
and  the  yield  of  seed  is  small.  Try  to  find  a  number  of 
grasses  in  bloom  and  convince  yourself  that  insects  seldom, 
if  ever,  visit  them.  Can  you  name  some  cultivated  plants 
which  belong  to  the  Grass  family  ? 

§  26.  Economy  of  Grasses  in  Nature  and  their  Usefulness 
to  Man. 

Of  all  plants,  the  grasses  are  by  far  the  most  useful  to 
man  in  northern  latitudes.  Our  cereals  —  wheat,  oats,  barley, 
rye,  and  Indian  corn  —  are  simply  cultivated  grasses.  Prove 
by  the  structure  of  these  plants  that  they  are  grasses.  The 
first  three  have  been  cultivated  in  the  Old  World  from  time 
immemorial,  so  that  we  do  not  even  know  now  from  which 
wild  plants  they  were  derived.  Maize,  or  Indian  corn, 
was  cultivated  by  the  natives  of  America  when  the  country 
was  discovered.  Our  well-known  sorghum,  the  sugar  cane 
of  the  South,  and  cultivated  rice  are  also  grasses. 

If  we  examine  the  plants  in  a  pasture,  we  find  little  else 
but  grasses.  What  is  the  explanation  for  this  ?  We  must 
dig  up  some  of  the  sod  and  wash  the  soil  out  of  it.  We 
find  that  besides  the  many  fine  roots,  most  grasses  have  a 
thick  rootstock,  which  survives  through  severe  winters  and 
through  parching  droughts,  and  from  this  rootstock  the 
blades  and  stalks  grow  in  spring.  Cattle  and  sheep  often 
graze  the  pasture  so  closely  that  only  very  few  grass 
stalks  have  a  chance  to  produce  seeds.  If  all  grasses  had  to 
grow  from  the  seed  every  spring,  our  domestic  animals  would 
soon  exterminate  the  very  kinds  which  they  like  best. 

Do  these  plants  grow  annually  from  a  subterranean  rootstock  or  from  seed  ? 


48         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

Why  are  Goldenrods,  Shoestrings,  and  even  some  grasses, 
allowed  to  flower  and  seed  in  pastures  ?  Are  our  cultivated 
grasses  annuals  or  perennials  ?  What  are  Pigeon  grass,  and 
Millet? 

The  fact  that  most  grasses  are  perennials,  and  that  they 
grow  so  close  together  in  large  numbers,  fits  them  peculiarly 
well  to  be  the  forage  plants  for  millions  of  cattle,  horses, 
and  sheep.  Our  noble,  wild,  herbivorous  animals,  the  deer 
and  elk,  feed  largely  on  grasses ;  while  the  immense  herds  of 
buffaloes  which  not  long  ago  roamed  over  the  Western 
plains  lived  almost  exclusively  on  grasses. 

Our  bread  comes  directly  from  the  seeds  of  grasses  ;  but  indi- 
rectly even  our  butter,  milk,  cheese,  meat,  clothes,  and  shoes  are 
derived  from  the  grasses;  for  grasses  are  the  principal  food  of 
the  animals  from  which  we  get  milk,  meat,  wool,  and  skiiis. 

Millions  of  bushels  of  barley,  rice,  and  corn  are  used  every 
year  in  brewing  beer,  which  is  considered  by  many  people 
an  innocent  and  pleasant  beverage,  like  coffee  or  tea ;  but 
the  intemperate  use  of  it  cannot  be  too  strongly  condemned. 
Many  million  dollars'  worth  of  rye  and  corn  are  used  by  dis- 
tilleries in  the  manufacture  of  alcohol.  Much  of  this  is  used 
in  different  arts,  by  scientists,  and  in  medicine  ;  but  a  large 
part  of  it  is  made  into  whiskey  and  brandy.  These  alcoholic 
liquors,  taken  habitually,  are  no  doubt  positively  injurious, 
and  they  represent  an  enormous  amount  of  grain,  money, 
and  labor  thrown  away. 

Grasses  in  the  economy  of  nature.  —  In  the  temperate  zones 
grasses  are  the  plants  which  give  character  to  the  land- 
scape. They  cover  the  prairies,  meadows,  and  pastures  like 
endless  green  carpets.  By  their  many  roots,  they  hold  the 
soil  together  and  prevent  it  from  being  washed  or  blown 
away.  Besides  feeding  the  animals  already  mentioned,  they 

Observations.  —  Observe  weeds  along  roads,  in  fields,  and  gardens. 


IN  THE   MEADOW  49 

furnish  food  and  shelter  for  countless  numbers  of  insects, 
birds,  and  other  small  animals.  A  country  without  grasses 
would  be  a  desert. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  many  of  our  farmers  do  not  de- 
rive more  profit  from  their  meadows.  On  the  continent  of 
Europe  high  meadows  are  regularly  fertilized  with  short  or 
with  liquid  manure,  and  most  low  meadows  are  so  laid  out 
that  they  are  thoroughly  drained  and  that  they  can  be  flooded 
at  any  time.  This  flooding  is  done  mostly  on  account  of  the 
fertilizing  substances  which  the  water  carries  with  it. 

NOTE.  —  About  grasses  especially  valuable  in  your  state  or  vicinity, 
consult  the  bulletins  of  your  State  Experiment  Station.  On  Grasses 
as  Sand-binders  for  Lake  and  Ocean  Shores,  see  Yearbook  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture,  1894. 


PRAIRIE   FLOWERS  IN   AUGUST 

MATERIAL  :  Several  species  of  goldenrods,  blazing  star,  wild  sun- 
flowers, cultivated  sunflowers,  prairie  weeds;  several  kinds  of  aquatic 
plants  for  comparison.  If  no  wild  prairie  is  accessible,  a  piece  of  high 
ground  not  covered  by  trees  or  rank  road-weeds  will  do  for  the  intro- 
ductory field  lesson.  Strips  of  wild  prairie  can  often  be  found  along 
railroad  tracks. 

§  27.  Some  weeks  ago  we  spent  considerable  time  in 
studying  plants  and  animals  found  in  wet  places  or  in  the 
water.  To-day  we  shall  take  up  a  group  of  plants  which 
make  their  homes  in  open  fields  and  on  dry  prairies.  Here 
in  my  left  hand  I  hold  the  flowers  we  picked  yesterday 
along  the  railroad  track,  and  in  my  right  hand  I  hold  some 
of  our  friends  from  the  lake  bottom.  You  all  have  similar 
specimens  on  your  desks.  Notice  the  difference  in  the 
general  texture.  The  aquatic  plants  are  soft,  easily  cut 
and  compressed.  Try  to  make  them  stand  upright.  In 
their  lake  home  they  grew  erect,  because  the  water  buoyed 
them  up,  but  in  the  air  they  fall  over  and  shrivel  up. 

If  you  make  cross  and  longitudinal  sections  of  stems  and 
leaves  of  aquatic  plants,  you  can  see  quite  well  that  their 
whole  tissue  is  composed  of  cells.  All  vegetable  tissue  is 
composed  of  similar  cells,  but  in  most  other  plants  the  cells 
are  much  smaller,  are  closely  packed,  and  often  have  com- 
paratively thick  walls,  which  make  the  plant  hard  and 
rigid. 

Observations.  —  What  weeds  do  you  find  growing  along  roads,  in  fields, 
on  vacant  lots,  and  in  other  waste  places? 

50 


PRAIRIE   FLOWERS   IN  AUGUST  51 

Now  notice  how  strong  and  robust  our  prairie  flowers 
are.     The  Goldenrods,  the   Blazing   Star,    the    Sunflowers, 


FIG.  11.    BOUQUET  OF  PRAIRIE  FLOWERS. 

a,  Purple  Coneflower,  Echinacea  purpurea ;  b,  A  Goldenrod ;  c,  Blazing 
Star,  Liatris  scariosa.     All  much  reduced. 

the  Asters,  and  others  stand  upright  without  any  difficulty. 
Their  stems  are  almost  woody,  their  leaves  are  more  or 
less  rigid,  and  are  often  covered  with  fine  hairs. 

What  are  eight  of  the  more  common  weeds  of  your  vicinity  ? 


52         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

Prairie  plants  need  a  strong  stem  to  withstand  the  force  of 
the  ivind.  Aquatic  plants  generally  grow  in  sheltered  bays 
or  in  deep  water,  where  winds  and  waves  affect  them  but 
little.  Those  that  grow  in  running  water  float  and  are 
wafted  about  by  the  current,  and  simply  cling  to  the 
bottom  by  their  roots.  Aquatic  plants  in  their  peculiar 
environment  do  not  need  a  strong,  rigid  stem;  it  would  even 
be  a  disadvantage  to  them.  Can  you  show  how  ? 

Here  is  a  handful  of  aquatic  plants  which  I  exposed  to 
the  sun  and  air  for  a  few  hours ;  and  here  you  see  a  hand- 
ful of  prairie  plants,  which  I  exposed  in  the  same  way. 
Notice  how  the  water  plants  have  shrunk  and  shrivelled, 
while  the  others  are  not  much  the  worse  for  the  exposure. 

You  know  that  prairie  plants  are  often  exposed  to  drought 
and  dry  winds,  and  therefore  have  learned  to  endure  consider- 
able drying.  Aquatic  plants  evaporate  their  moisture  very 
rapidly  when  taken  out  of  the  water,  and  shrivel  so  much 
that  little  is  left  of  them. 

Goldenrods,  Blazing  Star,  Coneflower,  and  many  others, 
which  in  form  remind  us  of  Asters  and  Sunflowers,  are 
characteristic  Prairie  Flowers.  When  these  beautiful  chil- 
dren of  our  boundless  plains  mingle  their  gold,  silver,  and 
purple  hues  with  the  verdure  of  tall  grasses,  we  are  gently 
reminded  that  soon  nature  will  once  more  be  sleeping, 
while  the  "  Northwester  "  sweeps  furiously  over  her  white- 
blanket. 

Examine  one  of  your  flowers  carefully,  and  you  will  find 
that  each  head  is  composed  of  many  very  small  flowers, 
which  grow  from  a  common  floor.  This  composite  flower 
is  surrounded  by  a  common  calyx,  which  often  consists  of 
many  green  scales  or  bracts.  Nearly  all  of  these  plants  are 
hardy,  and  a  light  frost  does  not  kill  them. 

Plants   which  have   such   composite   flowers   are   called 

Observations.  —  Are  the  following  among  them? 


PRAIRIE   FLOWERS   IN  AUGUST  53 

Composites.  They  form  the  largest  family  of  flowering 
plants  on  earth.  Do  you  think  there  are  many  of  them 
growing  in  this  locality?  For  to-morrow's  lesson,  bring 
me  as  many  different  kinds  of  composites  as  you  can  find. 
Do  all  Asters,  Thistles,  and  Dahlias  belong  to  the  com- 
posites ?  How  are  the  seeds  of  Thistles  and  Dandelions 
disseminated  ? 

In  our  next  lesson  we  shall  study  the  cultivated  Sun- 
flower ;  it  is  the  largest  of  our  composites  and  shows  the 
typical  structure  very  clearly. 

§  28.    The  Sunflower.     Helianthus  annuus. 

MATERIAL  :  Cultivated  sunflowers  at  different  stages  of  develop- 
ment ;  other  composites  for  comparison. 

The  cultivated  Sunflower  might  well  be  called  the  Giant 
Flower.  In  good  soil  you  can  find  some  whose  flower  heads 
measure  from  six  to  ten  inches  across.  If  the  plant  has 
room,  it  is  copiously  branched;  its  stem  is  then  about  as 
thick  as  a  man's  arm,  and  may  attain  a  height  of  seven 
feet. 

Each  head  consists  of  a  large  number  of  little  tubes  and 
a  row  of  strap-shaped  rays  on  the  outside.  A  single  one 
of  these  little  tube-shaped  flowers,  if  placed  by  itself,  would 
not  be  at  all  conspicuous,  and  could  not  easily  be  seen  by 
insects.  The  fact,  however,  that  thousands  of  them  are  placed 
in  one  head,  and  there  surrounded  by  a  crown  of  large,  bright 
rays,  makes  the  ivhole  head  very  conspicuous.  On  a  warm 
day  you  will  find  a  large  number  of  bees  and  other  insects 
busy  drinking  the  honey  from  the  thousands  of  little  wells. 

The  little  tubes  open  in  rings,  beginning  on  the  outside 
of  the  head.  Look  at  this  large  head.  Here  is  a  ring  of 

Common  ragweed,  giant  ragweed,  false  sunflower,  dog  fennel,  Canada 
thistle,  burdock,  sweet  clover,  Russian  thistle. 


54 


HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 


tubes  from  which  protrude  little  bodies,  looking  like  horns. 
Inside  of  these  is  a  ring,  in  which  every  tube  bears  a  hat 
of  yellow  pollen.  If,  now,  a  bee  crawls  about  on  the  sun- 
flower, it  gets  its  head  all  dusty,  when  it  introduces  its  long 
lips  into  the  tubes.  With  its  body  it  brushes  away  the 
little  pollen  caps,  and  scatters  the  dust  all  over  the  curved, 
horn-like  bodies.  These  are  the  pistils,  and  in  this  way  the 
insect  carries  the  pollen  of  one  tube  to  the  pistil  of  another. 


FIG.  12.    FLORETS  OP  CULTIVATED  SUNFLOWER. 

1,  showing  the  projected  anther  tube  with  pollen  on  top;  2,  the  same, 
with  half  of  the  corolla  tube  removed;  3,  showing  the  two  tubes  and  the 
style ;  4,  the  same  with  the  corolla  tube  removed,  and  showing  how  the 
anther  tube  is  retracted ;  5,  half  of  the  anther  tube  and  half  of  the  corolla 
tube  removed.  All  enlarged. 

Insects,  no  doubt,  also  carry  pollen  from  one  head  to  another, 
and  also  from  one  plant  to  another. 

The  parts  of  the  florets.  —  With  a  pin  or  small  knife,  open 
one  of  the  tubes  lengthwise.  Tlie  tube  itself  is  the  corolla. 
Inside  of  it  you  will  find  little  threads  grown  together  at 
their  upper  end  and  forming  a  second  short  tube.  The 
threads  are  the  stamens,  and  the  second  tube  is  formed  by  the 
growing  together  of  the  anthers.  In  the  centre  of  the  stamens 
is  the  style.  It  grows  through  the  anther  tube  and  pushes 


UNIVERSITY 
PRAIRIE   FLOWERS   IN 


the  pollen  out  before  itself.  Thus  the  yellow  hats  are 
formed. 

But  the  style  is  not  yet  split,  and  is  not  ready  to  be 
fertilized.  Only  after  most  of  the  pollen  has  been  brushed 
away  by  insects  does  it  split,  and  the  upper  sides  of  the 
little  horns,  which  are  yellow  or  dark  purple,  are  now  ready 
to  be  fertilized  by  pollen  from  the  florets. 

Students  of  botany  have  found  that  it  is  an  advantage 
to  most  plants  if  their  flowers  do  not  fertilize  themselves, 
but  are  cross-fertilized  by  insects,  or  some  other  agency. 
In  cross-fertilization  the  pollen  of  one  flower  is  carried  to  the 
pistil  of  another.  Many  flowers  have  exceedingly  flne  and 
interesting  devices  for  preventing  self-fertilization  and  for 
securing  cross-fertilization  by  insects.  In  some  plants,  as,  for 
instance,  in  our  well-known  milkweeds,  self-fertilization  is 
absolutely  impossible.  Some  flowers  are  self-fertilized  only 
when  insects  are  scarce  ;  others  are  wind-fertilized  ;  and 
some  are  always  self-fertilized.  Can  you  tell  now  by  what 
means  the  sunflower  secures  insect-fertilization  and  pre- 
vents self-fertilization?  Do  the  pistil  and  the  anthers  in 
one  floret  mature  at  the  same  time  ? 

On  top  of  the  immature  seeds  you  discover  two  small 
scales  ;  these  really  are  the  calyx  for  one  floret.  In  many 
composites  this  calyx  is  changed  to  hairs,  or  feathers,  or 
awns  ;  it  is  called  pappus. 

The  common  floor  on  which  the  florets  are  set  is  called 
the  receptacle.  It  is  often  covered  with  chaff-like  scales, 
which  probably  protect  the  seeds  and  help  to  hold  them  in 
place.  We  have  already  learned  that  all  the  florets  are 
surrounded  by  a  common  calyx,  which  consists  of  rather 
large  leafy  scales,  often  arranged  like  shingles  on  a  roof. 
This  common  calyx  is  called  the  involucre. 

Have  a  druggist  weigh  for  you  one  sunflower  seed.  You 
will  find  that  it  weighs  about  a  grain.  Then  weigh  on  a 


56         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

common  spring-scale  a  large,  full-grown  sunflower  plant, 
with  roots,  leaves  and  all.  How  many  times  is  the  weight 
of  the  seed  contained  in  the  weight  of  the  mature  plant? 
In  how  long  a  time  does  this  wonderful  growth  take  place  ? 
If  your  plant  is  three  months  old,  how  much  was  its  average 
gain  in  weight  per  day  ?  Where  did  this  rapidly  increasing 
material  come  from  ?  Will  a  plant  grow  if  you  cut  off  all 
its  leaves  ?  Make  the  experiment. 

§  29.    The  Composite  Family. 

MATERIAL  :  Sunflowers,  goldenrods,  asters,  blazing  star,  and  other 
composites  of  the  season  brought  by  the  children. 

Here  we  have  many  flowers  of  the  season,  some  very  showy 
and  a  few  quite  modest  in  appearance.  In  my  left  hand  I 
hold  ten  flowers,  differing  much  in  size  and  color ;  but  all 
agree  in  one  thing.  Their  larger  heads  consist  of  many  tube 
or  strap-shaped  florets,  growing  from  a  common  receptacle  and 
surrounded  by  a  common  involucre.  TJiey  all  belong  to  the 
Composite  family,  of  which  we  studied  the  Sunflower  as  the 
type. 

Here  are  some  thistles  and  blazing  stars.  Examine  their 
florets  and  you  will  find  them  all  tubular.  Here  is  a  dande- 
lion, which  has  all  the  florets  strap-shaped.  Other  flowers 
resemble  the  sunflower  very  closely.  They  have  a  margin 
of  large,  showy  rays ;  but  the  inner  florets  are  tubular.  Can 
you  tell  to  which  one  of  these  three  divisions  each  one  of 
our  composites  belongs  ? 

Muller,  in  his  famous  book  on  "The  Fertilization  of 
Flowers,"  mentions  the  following  points,  which  combined 
so  well  to  fit  the  composites  to  survive  in  the  struggle  for 
existence :  — 

1.  The  close  association  of  many  florets.  This  makes 
them  more  conspicuous  and  attracts  more  insects.  Insects 
can  fertilize  numerous  florets  in  a  very  short  time.  The 


PRAIRIE   FLOWERS   IN  AUGUST  57 

common  involucre  makes  a  separate  calyx  for  each  floret 
unnecessary  and  it  is  generally  changed  into  feathers,  hairs, 
or  barbs,  which  aid  in  the  dispersion  of  the  seeds. 

2.  Their  honey  is  easily  accessible  and  attracts  a  great 
variety  of  insects.     Look  for  a  ring  around  the  style  of  the 
sunflower,  at  the  base  of  the  tube.     This  ring  secretes  the 
honey.     Have  you  found  the  honey  in  the  sunflower  ?     If 
not,  try  to  find  it.     How  is  it  protected  from  rain  ?     Find 
the  honey  in  milkweeds. 

3.  By  an  arrangement  described  in  the  last  paragraph, 
cross-fertilization  is  very  generally  secured.     Describe  that 
device  again. 

The  Composites  are  a  characteristic  feature  of  the  landscape 
in  all  of  eastern  North  America.  You  can  find  them  from 
spring  until  late  in  the  fall,  but  in  late  summer  and  in  autumn 
they  are  most  conspicuous.  And  now  we  must  say  good  by 
to  them  all,  —  to  the  Garden  Asters  and  the  Dahlias,  which 
make  our  lawns  shine  in  all  the  colors  of  the  rainbow,  and 
to  the  Goldenrods  and  native  Asters,  the  wild  and  hardy 
children  of  our  wild  hills  and  prairies. 


VI 
ROADSIDES   AND   NEGLECTED   CORNERS 

§  30.  A  Chapter  on  Weeds.  How  they  grow  and  how  you 
can  kill  them. 

NOTE.  —  Of  the  following  list  choose  for  study  only  those  which  are 
common  in  your  neighborhood  or  which  are  likely  to  invade  it. 

1.  Common  Ragweed,  Ambrosia  artemisicefolia. 

2.  Giant  Ragweed,  Ambrosia  trifida. 

3.  False  Sunflower,  Iva  xanthiifolia. 

4.  Dog  Fennel,  Anthemis  coluta. 

5.  Canada  Thistle,  Cnicus  arvensis. 

6.  Burdock,  Arctium  Lappa. 

7.  Sweet  Clover,  MeMlotus  alba. 

8.  Russian  Thistle,  Salsola  Kali. 

These  weeds  can  be  studied  at  any  time  from  July  to  October. 
Teach  the  children  to  recognize  them  at  all  stages  of  development, 
beginning  with  the  seedling.  The  following  descriptions  refer  to  the 
plants  in  flower. 

Nos.  1  to  6  belong  to  the  Composite  family,  but  the 
flowers  in  the  first  three  are  small  and  greenish,  although 
very  many  of  them  are  set  close  together.  The  two  Ragweeds 
have  the  staminate  and  the  pistillate  flowers  in  separate 
heads.  Both  are  exceedingly  common  in  all  our  Northern 
States  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  It  would  be  difficult 
to  find  a  road  in  this  territory  along  which  these  two  weeds 
are  not  found  in  profusion,  if  they  are  left  undisturbed. 

The  Giant  Ragweed  grows  from  one  to  twelve  feet  high ;  the 
Common  Ragweed  attains  a  height  of  about  three  feet.  The 

Observations.  —  The  great  abundance  of  house  flies,  moths,  and  all 
kinds  of  insects. 

58 


ROADSIDES   AND  NEGLECTED    CORNERS 


59 


latter  has  the  leaves  much  cut  up  into  narrow  lobes,  which 
resemble  small  rags.  The  former  has  very  large  leaves 
which  are  deeply  three-lobed.  Can  you  tell  now  why  these 
plants  are  called  Ragweeds  ?  Both  of  them  are  annuals. 
How  can  you  prove  that  ?  Their  seeds  are  dispersed  by  the 

wind  and  sometimes  with 
grain.  Both  do  some  in- 
jury to  grain,  if  they  are 
•allowed  to  grow  in  it. 


FIG.  13.    LEAF  OF  GIANT  RAGWEED. 
Much  reduced. 


FIG.  14.    LEAF  OF  COMMON 

RAGWEED. 
Much  reduced. 


No.  3.    The  False  Sunflower. 

This  is  another  very  large  weed.  It  is  found  in  cultivated 
soil,  along  roads,  and  in  waste  places,  where  it  grows  from 
two  to  six  feet  high  and  the  stem  may  become  from  one 
half  to  two  inches  thick.  The  leaves  resemble  closely 
those  of  the  sunflower,  but  their  margins  are  more  cut- 
toothed.  Do  you  think  these  three  weeds  are  fertilized  by 
insects  ? 


The  various  kinds  of  spiders  aud  how  they  secure  their  prey. 


60 


HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 


How  to  exterminate  them. 

As  all  three  are  annuals,  they  are  best  killed  out  by  pre- 
venting them  from  seeding.  Cutting  or  pulling  will  accom- 
plish the  result.  If  the  plants 
have  already  matured  seed,  they 
must  be  burned,  after  cutting. 

No.  4.  The  Dog  Fennel 
This  weed  also  is  a  composite 
and  at  once  recognized  as  one. 
Its  flowers  have  white  rays  and 
a  yellow  disc  (the  central  part)  ; 
the  leaves  are  very  finely  di- 
vided. The  whole  plant  has  a 
strong  and  rather  unpleasant 
scent.  It  is  often  a  trouble- 
some weed  in  meadows  and 
pastures.  Early  mowing,  before 
the  plants  have  seeds,  will  ex- 
terminate it.  Why  do  cattle 
not  keep  this  weed  down  ? 
How  are  the  seeds  of  this 
species  disseminated  ? 

No.  5.    The  Canada  TJiistle. 

This  is  one  of  the  worst  weeds  in  our  Eastern  and 
Northern  States,  and  in  Canada.  It  was  introduced  into 
Canada  from  Europe,  and  from  Canada  it  has  spread  into 
the  United  States.  It  is  now  found  from  New  England 
to  Missouri,  and  also  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

The  plant  is  one  to  two  feet  high,  has  rose-purple  flowers, 
which  are  smaller  than  those  of  the  Common,  or  Bull 
Thistle ;  from  which  it  also  differs  in  its  more  slender 


FIG.  15.    LEAF  OF  FALSE 
SUNFLOWER. 

Much  reduced. 


Observations. — Bats  flying  about  in  the  evening  catching  nocturnal 
insects. 


ROADSIDES   AND  NEGLECTED   CORNERS 


61 


habit,  thinner,  more  deeply  cut  and  curled  leaves,  and 
less  rigid  prickles.  The  teacher  should  show  both  plants 
at  the  same  time. 


FIG.  16.    LEAF,  FLOWERING  HEAD,  AND  ROOTSTOCK  OF  CANADA 

THISTLE. 
One-half  natural  size. 


Note  the  fall  migration  of  birds  ;  hibernation  of  amphibians,  reptiles,  insects. 


62          HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

The  Canada  thistle  is  a  perennial,  which  means  that  its 
roots  live  in  the  ground  from  year  to  year.  In  spring  these 
roots  send  out  shoots,  or  rootstocks,  in  all  directions.  A 
single  plant  can  spread  over  a  square  rod  in  two  or  three  years 
by  its  rootstocks  alone.  This  is  the  reason  that  the  weed 
is  so  difficult  to  eradicate.  Every  owner  of  land  should 
see  that  it  does  not  become  firmly  established.  Frequent 
grubbing  or  mowing,  ploughing  several  times  in  August, 
salting  the  plants  and  then  pasturing  sheep  on  them, 
applications  of  kerosene  and  carbolic  acid,  are  all  recom- 
mended as  means  to  kill  the  Canada  Thistle.  About  the 
detail  of  those  measures  consult  your  State  Reports  or 
Bulletin  No.  39  of  the  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station. 

No.  6.    The  Burdock. 

The  Burdock  is  another  common  weed,  too  well  known 
to  need  any  description  here.  In  size  it  rivals  the  giant 
ragweed  and  the  false  sunflower.  It  is  not  troublesome 
on  cultivated  land,  but  takes  possession  of  every  corner 
of  rich  soil,  where  a  lazy  and  careless  owner  leaves  it 
undisturbed.  What  makes  it  a  nuisance?  Can  you  tell 
to  which  family  it  belongs  ? 

This  weed  is  a  biennial,  which  means  that  it  lives  two 
seasons  or  summers. 

The  seeds  germinate  generally  the  spring  after  they 
matured.  During  the  first  summer  the  plant  simply  pro- 
duces a  whirl  of  large  leaves  and  a  strong  root,  but  no 
stem.  This  root  lives  through  the  winter,  and  in  the 
following  spring,  the  second  in  the  life  of  the  plant,  pro- 
duces leaves,  a  branched  stem,  and  a  large  number  of  flower 
heads.  When  the  seeds  have  matured,  these  heads  form 


Observations.  —  What  becomes  of  house  flies,  wasps,  and  mosquitoes  in 
late  autumn? 


ROADSIDES  AND   NEGLECTED   CORNERS 


63 


FIG.  17.    LEAVES,  FLOWERING  HEAD,  AND  HEADS  WITH  SEED  OF 
BURDOCK. 

One-half  natural  size. 


Do  all  birds  leave  us  in  autumn  ? 


64         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

the  burs,  which  are  so  annoying  to  man  and  beast.  Can 
you  tell  now  how  the  seeds  of  the  burdock  are  dissemi- 
nated ? 

How  destroyed.  —  The  burdock  dies  a  natural  death  at  the 
end  of  the  second  season.  Observe  such  dying  plants. 
During  the  first  season,  the  root  can  be  cut  under  ground 
or  the  whole  plant  may  be  pulled  up,  when  the  ground  is 
very  wet.  Try  that.  Plants  that  have  lived  into  the  second 
summer  should  be  cut  repeatedly,  to  prevent  them  from 
blooming  and  producing  seed.  The  burdock,  like  the 
Canada  thistle  and  the  dog  fennel,  was  introduced  from 
Europe. 

No.  7.    The  Sweet  Clover. 

This  plant  is  not  troublesome  in  fields  and  gardens.  In 
Minnesota  and  Wisconsin  it  grows  luxuriantly  along  roads, 
on  almost  barren  limestone,  and  in  other  waste  places.  In 
its  general  appearance  it  resembles  alfalfa,  but  is  much 
larger,  being  from  two  to  seven  feet  high.  It  can  scarcely 
be  classed  as  a  noxious  weed;  its  numerous  white  flowers 
are  quite  fragrant  and  the  plant  has  been  cultivated  for 
fodder.  If,  however,  it  is  allowed  to  grow  along  roadsides, 
its  profuse  stalks  and  branches  offer  good  shelter  for  hiber- 
nating insects.  Repeated  mowing  will  keep  it  from  seed- 
ing, and  ploughing  or  tilling  of  any  kind  will  soon  destroy  it. 
The  flowers  of  the  sweet  clover  resemble  those  of  white  and 
red  clover.  If  you  can  compare  the  different  clover  flowers 
with  flowers  of  beans  and  peas,  you  will  notice  a  close  re- 
semblance. Beans,  peas,  vetches,  and  clovers  belong  to  the 
Pulse  family.  Do  you  know  a  tree  whose  flowers  resemble 
the  flowers  of  the  pea  and  the  bean  ? 

In  some  places  a  Yellow  Sweet  Clover  is  found,  which  in 
general  appearance  is  much  like  the  white  species,  but  is 
smaller,  from  two  to  three  feet  high,  and  has  yellow  flowers. 


ROADSIDES   AND   NEGLECTED   CORNERS  65 

No.  8.    The  Russian  Thistle. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  injurious  of  the  weeds  that  have 
been  introduced  into  the  United  States.  In  the  following 
description  I  quote  from  Mr.  E.  S.  Goff  in  Wisconsin 
Bulletin,  No.  39 :  "  The  Russian  Thistle  is  an  annual, 
coining  each  year  from  the  seed.  It  grows  from  a  single, 
small,  light-colored  root  less  than  half  an  inch  in  diameter 
and  six  to  twelve  inches  long  to  a  height  of  from  six  inches 
to  three  feet,  branching  profusely,  and  when  not  crowded, 
forms  a  dense,  bush-like  plant  from  two  to  six  feet  in  diam- 
eter and  one-half  or  two-thirds  as  high.  When  young,  it 
is  a  very  innocent-looking  plant,  tender  and  juicy  through- 
out, with  small,  narrow,  downy,  green  leaves.  When  the  dry 
weather  comes  in  August,  this  innocent  disguise  disappears, 
the  tender  downy  leaves  wither  and  fall,  and  the  plant 
increases  rapidly  in  size,  sending  out  hard,  stiff  branches. 
Instead  of  leaves,  these  branches  bear  at  intervals  of  half 
an  inch  or  less  three  sharp  spines,  which  harden  but  do  not 
grow  dull  as  the  plant  increases  in  age  and  ugliness.  The 
spines  are  one-fourth  to  one-half  inch  long.  At  the  base  of 
each  cluster  of  spines  is  a  papery  flower  about  one-eighth  of 
an  inch  in  diameter.  If  this  be  taken  out  and  carefully 
pulled  to  pieces,  a  small,  pulpy,  green  body  coiled  up,  and 
appearing  like  a  minute  green  snailshell,  will  be  found. 
This  is  the  seed.  As  it  ripens,  it  becomes  hard  and  of  a 
rather  dull  gray  color.  At  the  earliest  frost  the  plants 
change  in  color  from  dark  green  to  crimson,  or  almost 
magenta,  especially  on  the  more  exposed  parts.  When  the 
ground  becomes  frozen  and  the  November  winds  blow  across 
the  prairie,  the  small  root  is  broken  or  loosened  and  pulled 
out.  The  dense,  yet  light,  growth  and  the  circular  or  hemi- 
spherical form  fit  it  most  perfectly  to  be  carried  by  the 
wind.  It  goes  rolling  across  the  country  at  racing  speed, 
scattering  seed  at  every  bound,  and  stopping  only  when  the 


FIG.  18.    RUSSIAN  THISTLE. 

a,  young  shoot ;  6,  mature  spray ;    c,  seed,     a  and  6,  slightly  reduced; 
c,  enlarged. 


KOADSIDES   AND  NEGLECTED   CORNERS  67 

wind  goes  down,  or  when  torn  to  pieces ;  for  there  are  few 
fences  or  forests  to  stop  its  course  in  the  Dakotas." 

Injury  caused  by  the  Russian  thistle. — Where  allowed  to 
grow,  it  takes  complete  possession  of  the  land  and  chokes 
grain  and  flax.  It  is  injurious  to  corn,  potatoes,  and  all  cul- 
tivated plants.  The  rigid  bushy  plants,  closely  beset  with 
sharp  spines,  are  very  disagreeable  to  handle. 

Introduction  and  distribution.  —  "  It  was  introduced  from 
Russia  in  1873.  During  the  twenty-two  years  since,  it  has 
spread  with  greater  rapidity  than  any  other  weed.  Ninety 
new  localities  were  reported  to  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture during  1894,  and  sixty-nine  in  1895,  previous  to  No- 
vember 20.  It  now  occurs  in  places  from  eastern  Ontario 
and  New  Jersey  to  the  western  border  of  Idaho  and  Califor- 
nia, and  from  Manitoba  to  New  Mexico  and  Missouri,  being 
most  abundant  in  South  Dakota  and  adjacent  states.  Twenty 
states  and  three  Canadian  provinces  are  known  to  be  in- 
fested." J 

Remedies.  —  As  the  plant  is  an  annual,  it  should  be  killed 
out  before  it  has  produced  seeds.  For  a  detailed  account  of 
this  weed,  see  your  State  Reports,  or  "  The  Russian  This- 
tle," by  L.  H.  Dewey,  Department  of  Agriculture,  or  Wis- 
consin Bulletin,  No.  39.  Is  the  plant  really  a  thistle  ? 

It  is  very  commonly  found  along  railroad  tracks,  about  elevators 
and  railroad  yards.  How  do  you  account  for  its  presence  there  ?  Do 
you  think  the  seeds  were  carried  to  the  Eastern  States  by  wind  ?  How 
could  railroads  distribute  weeds  ? 

See  also  on  weeds  :  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  28  ;  Weeds,  and  How  to 
Kill  Them  ;  Two  Hundred  Weeds,  by  L.  H.  Dewey,  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  ;  Bulletins  Nos.  50  and  57  of  the  Kansas  State 
Agricultural  College  (No.  50  contains  one  hundred  and  forty-five  fig- 
ures of  weed  seedlings,  and  No.  57  figures  the  leaves  of  about  two  hun- 
dred weeds). 

1  From  L.  H.  Dewey,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


68  HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE   STUDY 

§  31.    Review  and  Summary. 

MATERIAL  :  A  piece  of  soil  with  its  natural  sod  ;  a  piece  of  field 
soil  with  the  stubble  or  grain  plants. 

Most  of  the  wild  plants  growing  in  our  country  are  natives 
of  this  continent.  The  first  settlers  found  them  growing  wild 
as  we  find  them  to-day.  Among  cultivated  plants,  Indian 
corn  and  tobacco  are  also  natives  of  North  America,  and 
were  to  some  extent  cultivated  by  the  Indians. 

Nearly  all  our  other  cultivated  plants  were  brought  from 
Europe  when  this  continent  was  settled  by  white  people. 
With  the  seeds  of  useful  plants,  nearly  all  the  noxious  Euro- 
pean weeds  have  been  introduced  on  our  farms,  and  some  of 
them,  like  the  Russian  thistle,  have  spread  with  amazing 
rapidity.  Do  you  know  of  injurious  animals  which  have 
been  introduced  into  this  country  ? 

Cultivation  has  brought  about  very  great  changes  in  this 
country  and  especially  in  the  surface  of  the  soil.  Millions  of 
acres,  indeed  whole  states  that  formerly  were  dense  forest 
or  wild  prairie,  have  been  converted  into  farms  and  gardens. 
The  ploughed  and  manured  land  is  good  soil,  not  only  for  wheat 
and  other  grain,  but  also  for  a  host  of  iveeds.  These  seed  them- 
selves, and  man  tills  the  ground  for  them  unintentionally.  In 
a  wild  country,  such  plants  as  the  ragweeds  and  the  false 
sunflower,  which  grow  best  on  loose  and  bare  soil,  have  to 
be  content  with  the  little  ground  which  is  laid  bare  or  de- 
posited by  water  runs,  streams,  and  burrowing  animals, 
such  as  gophers,  skunks,  rabbits,  etc. ;  but  when  that  wild 
country  is  settled,  an  unlimited  acreage  of  ground  is  pre- 
pared for  these  weeds  on  farms,  in  gardens,  and  on  roads  and 
railways.  Of  this  favorable  ground  our  native  weeds  quickly 
possess  themselves,  and  their  relations,  introduced  in  vari- 
ous ways,  were  not  slow  to  claim  a  share. 

The  fact  that  some  farmers  have  more  land  than  they  can 


ROADSIDES  AND  NEGLECTED   CORNERS  69 

thoroughly  cultivate  has  done  much  to  spread  some  of  our 
worst  weeds. 

Still,  in  the  economy  of  nature,  iveeds  are  not  useless.  They 
hold  the  bare  and  loose  soil  together,  and  keep  it  from  being 
blown  or  washed  away.  Those  kinds  that  grow  on  almost 
bare  clay,  sand,  or  rock  no  doubt  add  slowly  to  the  fertility 
of  such  soil  by  their  decaying  roots,  stalks,  and  leaves,  thus 
tending  to  fit  the  soil  for  more  useful  plants. 


VII 

LIFE   ABOUT    OUR  HOMES   IN    FALL. 
SEPTEMBER   AND    OCTOBER 

§  32.  Introduction.  —  One  who  has  seen  a  board  shanty 
set  down  on  the  open  prairie  will  at  once  admit  that  shade 
trees  are  absolutely  necessary  to  make  any  place  look  like 
home.  In  the  autumn  our  trees  begin  to  show  some  yellow 
leaves,  the  merry  songsters  of  spring  have  mostly  left  them. 
Noisy  crowds  of  English  sparrows  frequent  them  in  the  day- 
time, and  in  the  evening  we  may  hear  the  low  chirps  of 
bats,  which  circle  around  them  hunting  for  moths  and  other 
nocturnal  insects.  On  bushes,  and  in  corners,  we  find  the 
webs  and  nets  of  different  spiders  which  are  waiting  for 
flies  to  become  entangled  in  their  nets. 

§  33.   The  Box  Elder,  or  Ash-leaved  Maple. 

MATERIAL  :  Twigs  with  leaves  and  fruit,  flowers  from  your  herba- 
rium, seedlings  of  last  spring  ;  piece  of  the  wood  cut  slantingly,  with 
the  rough  bark  on  it,  observed  in  spring ;  the  unfolding  of  the  leaves 
and  the  appearance  of  the  flowers. 

The  Box  Elder  is  one  of  the  trees  most  commonly  planted 
for  shade  and  ornament.  It  is  a  rather  small  tree,  reaching 
an  average  height  of  about  thirty  feet.  If  you  compare 
the  fruit  of  this  tree  with  those  of  the  maples  growing  in 
your  neighborhood,  you  will  at  once  be  struck  by  the  close 
resemblance  they  show  to  each  other ;  the  Box  Elder  is,  in- 
deed, a  kind  of  maple.  The  leaves  consist  of  from  three  to 

Observations.  —  Give  special  attention  to  your  house  plants. 
70 


LIFE   ABOUT  OUR   HOMES   IN  FALL 


71 


five  leaflets.  The  latter  are  attached  to  a  strong  midrib, 
which  bears  an  odd-numbered  leaflet  at  the  end.  A  compound 
leaf,  which  has  the  leaflets  attached  along  a  common  stalk, 


FIG.  19.    Box  ELDER. 

«,  part  of  leaf;  6,  seeds;  c  and  d,  staminate  flowers;  e,  pistillate  flowers. 
All  reduced. 

What  plants  do  you  find  in  the  homes  of  your  friends? 


72         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

is  called  a  pinnate  leaf.  Good  examples  of  pinnate  leaves 
are  the  leaves  of  roses,  peas,  and  vetches. 

The  flowers  of  the  Box  Elder  appear  early  in  spring, 
with  the  leaves  or  before  them.  The  sterile  and  the  fertile 
flowers  are  on  different  trees.  The  sterile  ones  appear  in 
drooping  bundles;  they  have  no  corolla,  the  stamens  are 
attached  to  a  long  thread  and  surrounded  by  a  small  green 
calyx.  After  the  pollen  is  shed,  the  sterile  flowers  wither 
and  drop  off. 

The  fertile  flowers  appear  in  drooping  clusters  ;  they  also 
are  destitute  of  a  corolla.  Each  flower  has  two  styles  which 
look  like  a  small,  bent  horn.  The  fertile  flowers  develop 
into  seeds,  and  when  the  seed  is  full  grown,  each  has  de- 
veloped a  wing.  The  seeds  are  not  ripe  until  late  in  the 
fall.  They  drop  off  very  slowly,  and  some  are  still  on  the 
tree  the  next  spring. 

The  Box  Elder,  although  its  native  home  is  the  borders 
of  streams  and  lakes,  will  thrive  in  almost  any  kind  of  soil, 
in  this  part  of  the  country,  although,  like  nearly  all  trees,  it 
prefers  moist  and  loose  soil.  It  grows  very  fast.  In  one 
season  young  trees  commonly  produce  shoots  three  feet 
long.  Its  foliage  is  very  dense,  and,  if  the  young  trees  are 
not  planted  too  far  apart,  they  soon  kill  weeds  and  grasses 
by  their  dense  shade.  The  fact  that  the  tree  remains  rather 
small,  makes  it  more  desirable  near  buildings,  because,  in 
case  of  a  storm,  it  does  not  endanger  them  by  falling  limbs. 
These  qualities  make  the  Box  Elder  one  of  the  most  desirable 
shade  trees  in  our  Northern  and  Northwestern  States. 

The  wood  of  the  Box  Elder  has  no  special  value.  Find 
out  for  yourself  about  its  color  and  hardness. 

NOTE. — The  insects  principally  injurious  to  this  tree  are  the  Box 
Elder  Bug,  the  Box  Elder  Leaf  Roller,  and  leaf-lice.  About  these 

Observations.  —  What  are  some  of  the  plants  most  easily  raised  in  houses? 


LIFE   ABOUT   OUR   HOMES   IN  FALL  73 

insects,  and  remedies  against  them,  consult :  Report  of  the  Minnesota 
Entomologist  for  1895. 

§  34.    The  English  Sparrow,  or  House  Sparrow. 

MATERIAL  :  One  or  two  live  specimens  in  a  cage.  Recently  killed 
sparrows  or  good  pictures  may  be  substituted  ;  nest  and  eggs  of  spar- 
rows. Previously  observed :  Sparrows  molesting  martins,  bluebirds, 
wrens,  bank  swallows,  robins,  catbirds,  and  other  beneficial  native 
birds  ;  what  the  sparrow  eats. 

This  bird  is  so  common  in  nearly  every  town  and  village 
of  the  region  for  which  this  book  is  intended,  that  a  descrip- 
tion is  necessary  only  for  recently  invaded  localities. 

It  is  about  as  large  as  a  canary  bird,  but  stouter.  Its 
general  color  above  is  ashy,  with  black  and  chestnut  stripes 
on  the  shoulders  and  back.  Over  the  eyes  and  on  the  sides 
of  the  neck  a  dark  chestnut  mark  can  be  distinctly  seen. 
The  wings  are  also  marked  by  one  chestnut  and  by  one 
light  bar  bordered  by  a  black  line.  The  dark  bill  is  cone- 
shaped  and  very  strong.  The  feet  are  brown,  the  tail  gray, 
and  there  is  a  dark  mark  on  the  breast.  The  female  is  paler 
and  does  not  show  the  bars  and  marks  distinctly. 

Its  history  in  America.  —  Some  poorly  instructed  would-be 
benefactors  of  their  country  imported  eight  pairs  from 
England  in  1850,  and  liberated  them  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
It  was  thought  that  the  sparrow  would  exterminate  various 
insects  injurious  to  shade  trees  in  the  streets  and  parks  of 
cities.  A  regular  sparrow  craze  seems  to  have  seized  the 
country  in  the  last  half  of  the  sixties,  as  it  is  known  that 
within  that  period  sparrows  were  imported  to  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  to  Boston,  Mass.,  and  to  Galveston,  Tex.  The  city 
government  of  Philadelphia  imported  a  thousand  sparrows 
in  one  lot,  in  1869.  Within  the  next  five  years  they  were 
imported  to  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah; 

How  are  house  plants  generally  propagated  ? 


74         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

Halifax,  Nova  Scotia  ;  and  to  several  towns  in  Ohio,  Wiscon- 
sin, and  Michigan.  It  was  not  until  about  ten  years  later 
that  the  sparrow  importers  began  to  realize  what  a  nuisance 
they  had  inflicted  upon  their  country. 

How  the  sparrows  have  spread.  —  As  sparrows  are  attracted 
to  grain-elevators,  railroad  freight  houses  and  yards,  it  often 
happens  that  they  are  locked  up  in  freight  cars,  where  they 
frequently  roost.  When  the  cars  are  opened  at  their  points 
of  destination,  the  liberated  sparrows  are  at  once  at  home 
again,  although  they  may  have  travelled  hundreds  of  miles. 
They  also  fly  from  town  to  town,  along  railroad  tracks,  and 
when  the  smaller  towns  become  crowded,  they  invade  the 
country  as  well. 

What  they  eat.  —  If  you  have  observed  them  for  some 
time,  you  must  have  noticed  that  they  are  not  at  all  par- 
ticular about  their  diet.  In  towns,  they  live  chiefly  on  the 
undigested  grain  they  find  in  horse-droppings,  but  they 
will  also  eat  all  kinds  of  kitchen  scraps,  buds  of  trees 
and  shrubs,  berries  and  fruits,  grain  on  the  field,  different 
insects,  except  hairy  caterpillars,  and  anything  that  is  eat- 
able. I  have  even  observed  them  fishing.  One  day  in 
June,  1895,  as  I  was  sauntering  along  the  docks  *  of  the 
Milwaukee  River,  near  its  entrance  into  Lake  Michigan,  I 
noticed  a  considerable  quantity  of  small  pieces  of  wood  and 
bark  slowly  drifting  towards  the  lake.  The  water  was  very 
turbid  and  had  a  foul  smell ;  and  a  large  number  of  fishes 
from  two  to  three  inches  long  were  floating  dead  on  the 
surface.  Wherever  a  dead  fish  came  near  a  piece  of  wood 
or  bark,  the  sparrows  would  alight  on  it  and  seize  the 
fish ;  some  eating  their  catch  on  shore,  others  apparently 
carrying  it  off  to  their  young.  Often  a  sparrow  would 
alight  on  so  small  a  raft  that  he  had  to  keep  his  wings 
in  motion,  while  he  picked  up  the  desired  minnow.  That 

Observations.  —  Are  they  all  grown  for  the  sake  of  the  flowers? 


LIFE   ABOUT   OUR   HOMES   IN   FALL  75 

a  bird  with  such  perfectly  omnivorous  habits  finds  his  table 
spread  wherever  man  lives,  is  easily  understood. 

The  house  sparrow  versus  our  native  birds.  —  The  courage 
and  pugnacity  of  this  little  fellow  are  not  at  all  inferior  to 
his  appetite  and  digestive  powers.  They  will  fight  robins, 
wrens,  catbirds,  swallows,  orioles,  and  any  of  our  native 
singers.  If  the  enemy  is  too  large  for  one  sparrow,  a  mob 
of  them  will  molest  him,  until  he  leaves  the  neighborhood. 
They  often  drive  wrens,  martins,  cliff  and  bank  swallows, 
out  of  their  nesting  places,  and  appropriate  the  nests  to 
their  own  use.  A  pair  of  robins  and  a  pair  of  sparrows 
once  built  their  nest  on  the  same  oak  tree  in  my  yard. 
At  four  in  the  morning,  the  birds  began  to  chatter  and 
fight,  and  continued  to  do  so,  with  some  interruptions,  all 
day.  At  the  end  of  a  week,  the  robins  left,  and  the  sparrows 
stayed.  Whenever  sparrows  become  numerous  in  a  town, 
our  native  birds  become  scarce. 

As  the  house  sparrotv  renders  but  very  little  benefit  to  us, 
and  crowds  out  our  beautiful  and  beneficial  singers,  it  should 
be  relentlessly  destroyed.  Break  up  their  nests,  shoot  them, 
trap  them,  poison  them,  whenever  and  wherever  you  can. 
They  may  be  poisoned  in  the  following  way  :  mix  one  part, 
by  weight,  of  white  arsenic  with  fifteen  parts  of  wheat. 
Moisten  the  wheat,  before  stirring  in  the  arsenic.  A  little 
gum  arabic  or  mucilage  added  to  the  water  will  make 
the  poison  adhere  better.  Dry  the  wheat  before  using  it. 
Attract  the  birds  by  feeding  them  regularly  in  a  certain 
place;  when  they  come  regularly  to  the  feeding  ground, 
give  them  the  poisoned  grain.  That  the  poisoning  and 
shooting  should  not  be  entrusted  to  small  boys,  is  self- 
evident. 

You  will  find  that  it  is  by  no  means  easy  to  shoot,  trap, 
or  poison  sparrows,  after  their  suspicion  has  once  been 

Visit  a  greenhouse,  if  you  live  in  the  city. 


76         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

aroused.  If  you  use  Paris  green  or  London  purple  instead 
of  white  arsenic,  the  birds  will  generally  not  touch  the 
poisoned  grain,  on  account  of  its  suspicious  color.  Does 
this  speak  well  for  their  intelligence? 

Nesting  places.  —  Martin  houses,  wren  boxes,  holes  of  bank 
swallows,  ready  corners,  and  holes  about  buildings  and 
bridges  are  preferred ;  but  when  these  cannot  be  had,  the 
sparrow  at  once  rises  to  the  occasion,  and  builds  on  trees 
and  in  vines.  I  have  found  about  a  hundred  nests  under  a 
wooden  bridge  in  St.  Paul,  Minn.  In  this  section  of  the 
country,  they  begin  nest-building  in  March  or  April,  and 
hatch  several  broods  during  the  summer. 

In  Canada,  New  Zealand,  and  Australia,  where  the  house 
sparrow  has  also  been  introduced,  it  has  proved  about  as 
much  of  a  nuisance  as  in  the  United  States. 

When  we  consider  that  this  little  bird  is  truly  omnivorous  ; 
that  its  courage  and  pugnacity  lead  it  to  make  excellent  use 
of  its  stout  bill  and  strong  claws ;  that  it  can  acclimatize 
itself  in  all  temperate  regions  of  the  earth ;  that  it  can  build 
its  nest  anywhere  and  out  of  anything ;  that  it  is  a  prolific 
breeder ;  that  it  is  possessed  of  great  intelligence  to  recog- 
nize danger  and  of  no  less  cunning  to  avoid  it,  —  we  must 
perceive  at  once,  how  exceptionally  well  it  is  equipped  in  the 
struggle  for  existence,  and  why  it  has  become  almost  cosmo- 
politan. 

§  35.   The  Bat. 

MATERIAL  :  Any  bat  found  in  your  region.  The  animal  alive  in  a 
trap,  or  a  picture  of  it.  Previously  observed  :  How  bats  fly  about  in 
the  evening,  how  they  rest,  etc. 

To  the  animals  which  are  quite  common  and  still  but 
little  known  belong  the  different  species  of  bats  which 
inhabit  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

Observations.  —  Why  will  some  greenhouse  plants  not  do  well  in  your 
home? 


LIFE   ABOUT  OUR   HOMES   IN  FALL  77 

When  the  sun  has  set,  the  bats  come  out  of  their  hiding- 
places  and  flutter  about  trees  and  houses,  uttering  from 
time  to  time  a  shrill  chirp. 

The  general  color  of  bats  is  that  of  mice.  Some  kinds 
are  brown  or  reddish,  others  rather  black,  and  their  fur  is 
as  soft  as  that  of  a  mouse.  The  little  animal  resembles  a 
mouse  so  much  in  color,  size,  and  general  appearance  that 
the  Germans  call  it  "  Fluttermouse "  (Fledermaus).  But 
bats  are  very  different  from  mice  in  several  respects.  They 
have  a  peculiar  kind  of  wings  with  which  they  can  fly,  and 
their  teeth  are  quite  different  from  those  of  mice.  We  have 
seen  how  the  legs  of  the  frog  are  made  for  jumping  and 


FIG.  20.    A  BAT. 

swimming.  The  limbs  of  the  bat  are  so  changed  that  they 
have  become  organs  of  flight. 

A  thin  skin,  or  mantle,  connects  the  fore  and  hind  legs, 
and  is  also  attached  to  the  tail.  The  four  long  thin  bones 
in  which  the  fore  limbs  end  are  really  the  four  digits,  or 
fingers,  much  lengthened.  Only  the  thumb  of  the  fore 
limbs  is  short  and  bears  a  claw.  Does  the  mantle  remind 
you  of  a  parachute  or  umbrella  ?  With  this  parachute  the 
bat  can  fly  almost  as  well  as  the  bird  flies  with  his  wings. 

When  bats  fly  about,  they  hunt  for  moths  and  other  noc- 
turnal insects,  of  which  they  eat  a  great  many.  Flying 
makes  them  very  hungry,  just  as  it  does  the  birds. 


78         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

The  bat's  eyes  are  small,  but  its  hearing  is  very  acute. 
Its  mouth  opens  almost  up  to  the  ears,  which  helps  it  to  catch 
insects  on  the  wing.  The  teeth  are  well  adapted  to  insect 
food.  They  are  all  sharp,  and  look  like  the  points  of  so 
many  needles.  With  such  teeth  the  creature  can  easily 
hold  and  kill  even  the  hardest  beetle.  What  birds  catch  and 
eat  their  food  on  the  wing  ?  Do  their  bills  open  very  far  ? 

How  the  bat  sleeps  and  rests.  —  The  toes  on  the  hind  feet 
of  a  bat  are  free  from  the  mantle.  With  these  the  bat 
hooks  itself  to  a  nail  or  twig,  or  to  a  rough  wall,  and  thus 
rests  with  its  head  hanging  downward.  When  evening 
comes,  it  lets  go  its  hold,  and  while  dropping  spreads  its 
parachute  and  flies  off. 

On  the  ground,  bats  are  very  awkward.  —  Their  limbs  are 
not  intended  for  running,  as  are  those  of  the  nimble  mouse. 
By  means  of  the  thumb-nails  and  the  claws  of  the  hind  feet, 
they  pull  and  push  themselves  along.  They  cannot  rise 
from  the  ground,  but  climb  up  to  some  high  place  from 
which  they  drop  down  while  spreading  their  parachute. 

How  bats  live  in  winter.  —  When  severe  frosts  have  killed 
insect  life  or  driven  it  into  its  hiding-places,  the  bats  also 
disappear.  Some  migrate  like  birds,  others  hang  themselves 
up  in  caves,  rocks,  crevices,  hollow  trees,  and  other  places 
of  shelter.  The  wings,  by  means  of  which  the  bat  glided 
noiselessly  about  in  the  orchard  on  so  many  warm  summer 
evenings,  now  become  the  cloak  of  the  little  creature,  whose 
food  supply  has  given  out,  and  who  has  nothing  better  to 
do  than  to  sleep  away  the  long,  dreary  winter. 

§  36.    Flies. 

MATERIAL  :  House  flies,  stable  flies,  and  blowflies  in  a  bottle.  Only 
a  few  of  each  species  are  needed. 

Everybody  knows  the  house  fly.  In  late  summer  they 
are  often  so  numerous  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  keep  a 
house  free  from  them. 


LIFE   ABOUT   OUR    HOMES  IN  FALL  79 

Like  all  true  flies,  it  has  only  two  wings.  Behind  the 
wings,  where  other  insects,  as  butterflies,  bees,  and  wasps, 
have  another  pair  of  wings,  the  fly  has  two  short  stubs, 
which  look  as  if  a  pair  of  wings  had  been  cut  off  from  them, 
Examine  the  flies  mentioned  above,  to  see  if  this  is  true  of 
the  stable  fly,  and  the  blowfly  as  well. 

Life  history  of  the  housefly.  —  It  lays  its  eggs  in  manure, 
and  the  larvae  look  like  the  typical  maggots  that  everybody 
has  seen  on  dead  animals,  decaying  meat,  on  cheese,  and  in 
old  mushrooms.  One  fly  lays  more  than  a  hundred  eggs. 
The  maggots  become  full  grown  in  about  a  week.  Then 
they  cease  eating  and  moving,  their  skin  shrinks,  and  they 
look  like  little  brown  barrels.  Whenever  manure  is  hauled 
out  of  the  barnyard  in  summer  or  fall,  these  little  barrels 
can  be  seen.  They  are  the  pupae  of  the  flies.  After  the 
pupa  stage  has  lasted  also  about  a  week,  the  maggot  changes 
into  a  fly,  which  breaks  the  brown  skin  and  crawls  out.  If 
you  can  procure  some  of  the  pupae  and  keep  them  in  a  glass 
jar  with  moist  soil,  you  can  watch  this  change  taking  place. 

Some  flies  winter  in  houses  or  warm  barns,  and  when 
spring  comes,  they  rapidly  multiply. 

The  stable  fly  looks  very  much  like  the  house  fly,  but  it 
is  grayer  in  color ;  its  wings  spread  more,  and  it  has  a  pierc- 
ing beak  like  the  mosquito,  and  annoys  horses  and  cattle 
very  much.  When  stormy  and  rainy  weather  approaches, 
it  often  comes  into  our  houses  and  torments  us  with  its 
biting.  Most  people  think  the  house  flies  are  hungry  and 
do  the  biting.  Examine  the  house  fly  closely,  and  you  will 
find  that  its  beak  has  a  foot-like  appendage,  with  which  it 
can  pick  up  small  pieces  of  food  and  rasp  on  them,  but  can- 
not pierce  the  skin  of  men  and  animals.  No  house  fly  ever 
bit. 

If  flies  were  not  so  numerous,  they  would  not  annoy  us ; 
but  on  account  of  their  immense  numbers  they  often  become 


80         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

a  great  nuisance,  because  they  fall  into  everything,  soil  our 
houses  and  furniture,  trouble  us  at  table,  and  disturb  us  in 
other  ways.  If  barns  and  barnyards  were  kept  clean,  so 
that  flies  could  not  find  so  many  breeding  places,  and  if  no 
refuse  were  thrown  out  near  our  homes,  they  would  not  be, 
nor  become,  so  numerous.  Can  flies  see  well  ?  Do  you 
think  they  can  smell  ?  How  would  you  prove  it  ?  What 
remedies  do  you  know  against  flies  ?  Which  would  be  the 
most  thorough  remedy  ? 

The  different  kinds  of  blowflies  are  larger  than  the  house 
fly,  and  are  known  by  their  loud  buzzing.  They  deposit 
their  eggs  on  meat  and  dead  animals.  If  a  fish  is  placed  in 
the  sun,  the  openings  under  the  gills  are  filled  with  eggs  in 
a  few  hours ;  so  quick  are  the  flies  to  find  food  for  them- 
selves and  their  maggots. 

NOTE.  —  As  the  eggs  and  maggots  of  flies  are  revolting  objects  to 
most  children,  it  is  not  advisable  to  show  them  in  class. 

§  37.   The  Spider. 

MATERIAL  :  An  orb  weaver,  a  cobweb  weaver,  and  a  funnel-web 
weaver,  each  by  itself  in  a  rather  large  bottle.  Place  a  few  straws  or 
small  sticks  in  the  bottles,  and  collect  the  spiders  a  few  days  before 
you  use  them.  A  few  cocoons  or  balls  with  eggs.  Some  young  spiders 
recently  hatched,  if  you  can  find  any.  An  orb,  enlarged,  drawn  on 
the  blackboard.  In  the  following  lesson  the  web  and  habits  of  the 
common  orb  weaver,  Epeira  vulgaris,  are  described.  Take  any  orb 
weaver  you  happen  to  collect  and  describe  its  color  and  markings  as 
you  find  them.  The  males  of  many  spiders  are  much  smaller  than  the 
females.  Before  this  lesson  the  children  should  observe  the  three  kinds 
of  spiders  mentioned,  and  their  habits. 

Spiders  are  not  so  numerous  about  our  houses  as  the  flies 
which  we  studied  in  our  last  lesson,  but  if  you  collected  all 
the  different  kinds  of  spiders  you  could  find,  you  would  be 
surprised  to  learn  that  there  are  perhaps  as  many  different 
kinds  of  spiders  as  there  are  different  kinds  of  flies.  To 
most  of  us  spiders  do  not  seem  pretty  animals,  like  butter- 


LIFE  ABOUT   OUR   HOMES   IN  FALL 


81 


flies  or  birds,  but  the  homely  spider  which  I  have  in  this 
glass  had  made  a  nest  as  wonderful  as  any  bird's  nest. 

Now  let  us  for  a  moment  examine  the  spiders  we  have 
here.     Their  bodies  consist  of  two  parts :  of  the  abdomen, 


\ 


FIG.  21.    AN  ORB  WEAVER. 

1,  male ;  2,  female,  —  both  reduced  ;  3,  the  spinnerets ;  4,  a  claw  of  a  foot ; 
5,  a  claw  showing  the  poison  gland.    The  last  three  enlarged. 

which  is  soft,  and  of  a  hard  part  to  which  the  eight  legs  are 
attached.  You  remember  that  the  body  of  a  butterfly 
showed  three  distinct  segments :  head,  thorax  (the  middle 
segment),  and  abdomen.  All  spiders  have  the  head  and 


82          HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

thorax  united.  If  you  look  closely  at  the  head  of  one  of 
your  larger  spiders,  you  will  discover  eight  small  eyes  on  it. 
In  front  of  the  legs  is  a  pair  of  organs  which  look  like  short 
legs.  They  are  called  palpi,  and  are  used  by  the  spider  in 
handling  its  prey.  The  segments  of  the  palpi  next  to  the 
head  are  flattened,  and  assist  in  chewing  the  food.  In  front 
of  the  palpi  are  two  strong  jaws,  each  armed  with  a  sharp 
claw.  Each  claw  has  a  small  opening  near  its  sharp  point, 
and  when  the  spider  bites,  poison  from  a  gland  in  the  head 
flows  through  this  opening.  The  small  insects  which  con- 
stitute the  spider's  prey  are  quickly  killed  or  benumbed  by 
this  poison,  but  it  has  but  little  effect  on  the  human  skin. 
There  is  no  well-authenticated  case  on  record  where  a  person 
was  fatally  poisoned  by  the  bite  of  a  spider ;  but  as  some 
persons  are  very  susceptible  to  poisons,  it  is  best  to  avoid 
being  bitten. 

Near  the  end  of  the  abdomen,  you  can  observe  several 
small,  wart-like  protuberances ;  these  are  the  spinnerets. 
Each  spinneret  is  provided  with  a  few  large  and  many 
small  openings ;  out  of  these  flows  a  soft,  viscid  substance, 
which  hardens  as  soon  as  it  is  exposed  to  the  air. 

Structure  of  an  orb  weaver's  net.  —  Com  stock  in  his 
Manual  says  :  "  Few,  if  any,  of  the  structures  built  by  lower 
animals  are  more  wonderful  than  the  nests  of  orb-weaving 
spiders;  but  these  beautiful  objects  are  so  common  that 
they  are  often  considered  hardly  worthy  of  notice.  If  they 
occurred  only  in  some  remote  corner  of  the  earth,  every  one 
would  read  of  them  with  interest.'7  The  spider  first  con- 
structs a  framework  of  dry  and  inelastic  lines,  which  are 
uniformly  taut  and  quite  strong.  The  outer  part  of  the 
framework  is  irregular,  but  the  central  part  is  regular  and 
consists  of  a  number  of  lines  which  radiate  from  the  centre 
of  the  web.  To  these  radiating  lines  the  spider  fastens  a 
thin,  sticky,  and  elastic  thread,  usually  in  the  form  of 


LIFE   ABOUT  OUR   HOMES  IN   FALL  83 

a  spiral.  Some  orb  weavers  construct  nets  which  differ 
somewhat  from  the  one  just  described.  Have  you  ever  seen 
an  insect  fly  against  the  spider's  net  ?  When  it  touches  one 
of  the  turns  of  the  sticky  line,  the  viscid  thread  at  once 
adheres  to  it.  As  soon  as  the  insect  feels  this  thread,  it 
begins  to  struggle  in  order  to  free  itself;  the  elastic  line 
stretches  and  the  insect  becomes  entangled  in  other  turns 
of  it.  If  the  sticky  line  were  not  elastic,  most  insects  would 
simply  break  the  turn  or  turns  they  happened  to  strike,  and 
escape.  Teacher  and  pupils  should  touch  the  threads  of  a 
web  and  observe  the  difference  between  the  thick,  support- 
ing lines,  and  the  thin,  spiral  catch-line. 

How  a  spider  seizes  and  eats  its  prey.  —  Some  of  the  orb- 
weaving  spiders  live  in  their  nets,  hanging  head  downwards ; 
others  have  a  hiding-place  near  one  corner  of  the  net.  They 
keep  hold  of  some  of  the  lines  leading  from  the  net,  and  as 
soon  as  the  jar  caused  by  an  entrapped  insect  is  thus  tele- 
graphed to  them,  they  rush  out  from  their  retreat  and  seize 
their  prey.  Sometimes,  when  the  insect  is  small,  they  begin 
at  once  to  suck  the  blood  and  moisture  out  of  it;  larger 
insects  are  often  completely  wrapped  in  threads  before  the 
spider  begins  its  meals. 

Eggs  and  young.  —  In  fall  the  orb  weavers  lay  a  large 
number  of  eggs,  which  they  cover  with  soft  silk,  and  after 
hiding  the  cocoon  in  a  protected  place,  they  watch  it  until 
they  die,  which  they  do  when  cold  weather  sets  in.  The 
eggs  hatch  in  the  following  spring.  For  a  short  time,  the 
little  spiders  remain  together  in  their  nest,  then  they  sepa- 
rate, and  each  spins  its  own  little  web. 

Other  well-known  spiders  are  the  Funnel-web  weavers, 
the  Cobweb  weavers,  and  the  Jumping  spiders.  The  webs 
of  the  first  can  be  seen  on  the  grass  in  large  numbers,  before 
the  dew  has  disappeared.  Every  housewife  wages  war  with 
broom  and  brush  against  the  cobweb  weavers.  You  can 


84         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

find  jumping  and  running  spiders  on  any  sunny  slope  very 
early  in  spring,  and  later  in  the  season  they  are  common 
everywhere.  If  you  desire  to  study  the  habits  of  a  spider, 
put  it  in  a  large  glass,  provide  it  with  a  few  sticks  and 
straws,  and  from  time  to  time  feed  it  a  few  flies.  Many 
birds  are  very  fond  of  spiders  and  their  eggs.  Some  wasps 
kill  them  by  stinging,  and  then  carry  them  off  as  food  for 
their  larvae. 

/ 

NOTE  TO  TEACHER. — At  the  close  of  this  chapter  a  few  lessons 
should  be  given  on  the  preparations  animals  and  plants  make  for 
winter.  A  few  suggestions  are  given  below,  but  the  working  out  of 
the  details  is  left  to  the  teacher. 

1.  Most  birds  and  some  bats  migrate  south. 

2.  Frogs,  toads,  snakes,  turtles  hibernate. 

3.  Some  mammals,    like  gophers,    chipmunks,   black  bears,    and 
badgers,  hibernate  also. 

4.  Weasels,  minks,  foxes,  and  wild  cats  live  principally  on  rabbits 
and  mice,  which  they  can  find  the  year  through,  therefore  they  do  not 
hibernate. 

5.  A  few  birds  that  can  find  food  in  the  winter  remain  with  us. 

6.  Some  insects  winter  as  adults,  others  as  pupas,  others  as  larvae. 

7.  All  plant  life,  except  some  low  aquatic  forms,  is  dormant  in 
northern  region. 


VIII 
WINDOW   FLOWERS.     NOVEMBER 

We  have  studied  a  few  plants  that  give  us  food;  others 
that  make  our  gardens  and  lawns  beautiful  with  their  flowers 
and  leaves.  Now  we  will  study  a  few  flowers  which  have 
gained  a  place  in  our  homes.  Most  of  the  flowers  which  add 
so  much  cheerful  beauty  to  our  rooms  are  children  of  a  warm 
climate,  and  cannot  endure  our  winters  out  of  doors.  Of 
the  great  number  of  house  plants,  we  can  study  only  a  few. 

§  38.    The  Geraniums.     Pelargonium. 

MATERIAL  :  Several  kinds  of  geraniums  in  bloom  ;  if  possible,  have 
also  some  with  seed  pods,  seedlings,  if  procurable.  Plant  several  cut- 
tings, as  directed  below,  two  or  three  weeks  before  this  lesson  is  given. 
Take  them  out  of  the  sand  and  show  them  to  the  class. 

The  home  of  most  of  our  Geraniums  is  the  Cape  Colony, 
in  South  Africa.  The  children  there  can  pick  geranium 
bouquets  as  easily  as  you  can  find  goldenrods  and  sun- 
flowers. The  many  species  have  become  so  much  mixed 
by  cultivation,  that  it  is  difficult  and  unnecessary  for  our 
purpose  to  distinguish  them. 

The  flowers  vary  from  white  into  pink  and  the  different 
shades  of  red.  The  small  flowers  always  grow  so  close 
together  that  they  make  a  conspicuous  bunch.  Each  flower 
has  generally  five  unequal  petals.  The  so-called  double 
geraniums  have  more  than  five  petals,  a  change  which  has 
been  caused  by  cultivation.  Double  flowers  have  changed 

Observations.  — Is  the  hair  of  horses  and  cattle  thin  and  glossy  now  as 
it  was  in  July  ? 

86 


86         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

all  or  some  of  the  stamens  into  petals.  They  are  often 
sterile.  There  are  no  wild  plants  which  have  double 
flowers. 

The  leaves  are  produced  in  great  abundance,  and  are 
kidney-shaped,  or  nearly  circular.  They  are  covered  with 
soft  hairs  on  both  sides.  In  some  species  they  show  a  dark 
horseshoe  band ;  other  kinds  have  sweet-scented  leaves. 

Geraniums  among  the  most  desirable  house  plants.  —  The 
plants  are  easily  raised  from  cuttings  of  almost  any  length. 
Geraniums,  although  they  cannot  endure  our  winters,  are 
not  very  susceptible  to  changes  in  temperature,  as  long  as  it 
remains  above  the  freezing-point,  and  even  a  light  frost 
does  not  generally  hurt  them.  If  the  busy  mother  forgets 
to  water  her  plants  regularly,  some  are  very  much  injured; 
but  the  geraniums  soon  raise  their  drooping  leaves,  and  re- 
cover from  the  effects  of  a  short  drought.  All  these  quali- 
ties make  the  geranium  a  most  grateful  plant,  and  enable 
even  the  poorest  family  to  adorn  their  home  with  a  few 
flowers  and  green  leaves  the  year  round. 

§  39.   Remarks  and  Suggestions  on  a  Few  Other  House  Plants. 

The  teacher  might  give  a  similar  lesson  on  some  other 
common  house  plant.  One  or  more  species  of  the  following 
can  be  easily  procured  almost  anywhere :  Fuchsia,  Begonia, 
Pink,  Cactus,  Flowering  Maple  (Abiitilon),  English  Ivy. 
Substitute  any  of  the  above  for  the  .Geranium,  if  it  suits 
your  convenience. 

The  following  remarks  may  be  helpful.  Most  Fuchsias 
are  natives  of  the  mountains  in  Mexico  and  South  America. 
The  calyx  forms  a  long  tube,  is  attached  to  the  ovary,  is 
brightly  colored,  and  its  four  lobes  stand  at  right  angles  to 
the  corolla.  The  corolla  is  attached  to  the  calyx.  Fuchsias 

Observations.  —  Could  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep  survive  the  winter  in 
your  region  without  being  fed  by  man  ? 


WINDOW  FLOWERS  87 

are  easily  propagated  by  seeds  or  cuttings.  The  species  are 
numerous  and  greatly  mixed. 

Begonias  are  often  cultivated  for  their  beautiful  foliage 
as  much  as  for  their  flowers.  Calyx  and  corolla  are  colored 
alike,  and  stamens  and  pistils  are  found  on  separate  flowers. 
The  plants  readily  grow  from  leaves,  which  are  planted 
edgeways  in  moist  sand. 

The  Cacti  have  no  leaves;  their  place  is  supplied  by  the 
green  rind  of  the  stem,  which  is  often  flattened.  By  this 
arrangement,  they  are  admirably  adapted  to  their  environ- 
ment. As  they  grow  in  dry  places  or  in  arid  regions,  it 
is  to  their  advantage  to  present  but  little  surface  to  the 
air,  and  thus  reduce  evaporation  of  moisture  to  a  minimum. 
A  few  small  species  grow  wild  on  rocks  and  sand  in  our 
Northern  States,  while  in  the  arid  regions  of  our  South- 
west and  West  the  genus  is  represented  by  numerous 
larger  species.  As  house  plants  they  need  but  little  water. 
They  are  propagated  by  seeds  or  cuttings. 

The  Flowering  Maple,  or  Abutilon,  has  the  stamens  united 
in  a  tube,  which  surrounds  the  styles. 

The  English  Ivy  (Hedera  Helix)  is  a  climbing  plant 
adhering  to  walls  by  numerous  small  rootlets.  In  this  part 
of  the  United  States,  it  is  found  only  as  a  house  plant. 
Farther  south,  and  in  England  and  western  Europe,  it 
endures  the  winter  out  of  doors.  It  is  cultivated  for  its 
lustrous,  dark  green  foliage. 

For  either  one  of  these  plants,  the  teacher  should  pro- 
vide similar  material  as  for  the  geraniums. 

§  40.   A  Lesson  on  Window  Gardens. 

The  following  directions  are  condensed  from  an  article  by  George  W. 
Carver  in  Bulletin  No.  32  of  the  Iowa  Agricultural  College,  to  which 
the  teacher  is  referred  for  more  detailed  information. 

Do  you  know  where  our  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep  came  from? 


88         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

MATERIAL  :  Let  each  pupil,  or  as  many  as  possible,  be  provided 
with  a  shallow  box  or  pan.  Following  the  directions  below,  let  each 
child  plant  some  cuttings  and  sow  some  seeds.  If  there  is  no  danger  of 
freezing,  keep  as  many  of  the  receptacles  in  the  schoolroom  as  is  conven- 
ient. Let  the  children  take  the  others  home.  After  four  or  five  weeks 
all  the  plants  should  be  brought  to  school  and  the  results  compared. 
If  seeds  cannot  be  had  conveniently,  a  florist  in  any  larger  town  will 
probably  send  enough  to  provide  a  class  for  twenty-five  or  fifty  cents. 

How  to  raise  flowers  from  cuttings.  —  All  cuttings  should 
be  rooted  in  clean  sharp  sand  (such  as  plasterers  use),  the 
object  being  to  secure  perfect  drainage,  warmth,  and  aera- 
tion. In  such  soil  the  cuttings  are  much  less  liable  to  rot 
and  mould. 

How  to  cut.  —  All  plants  having  conspicuously  jointed 
stems  should  be  cut  just  below  a  joint;  all  others  just 
below  the  point  where  the  leafstalk  joins  the  stem.  It 
is  best  to  make  all  cuttings  slantingly,  because  such  cut 
gives  more  surface  for  rootlets  than  a  straight  cut.  Make 
your  cuttings  about  two  inches  long,  remove  all  leaves  near 
the  lower  end,  and  if  the  upper  leaves  are  large  cut  away 
the  upper  half. 

Receptacles. — A  shallow  box  or  pan  is  a  most  excellent 
receptacle  for  the  cuttings.  Begonias,  heliotropes,  fever- 
fews, lantanas,  coleus,  carnations,  and  kindred  plants  will 
root  best  if  covered  with  a  large  glass,  a  fruit  dish,  or  a 
glass  tumbler ;  because  the  conditions  of  heat  and  moisture 
can  thus  be  kept  much  more  uniform.  The  sand  should  be 
kept  constantly  moist,  and  the  plants  removed  as  soon  as 
they  are  rooted.  Most  cuttings  will  root  in  two  weeks ; 
with  a  little  care  they  may  be  removed  from  the  sand  and 
examined  at  any  time  without  injury. 

liaising  plants  from  seed.  —  This  lesson  is  important  on 
account  of  its  instructive  value  to  the  children.  In  the 

Observations.  —  Did  the  Indians  north  of  Mexico  have  domesticated 
animals  when  America  was  discovered? 


WINDOW  FLOWEKS  89 

case  of  many  plants,  seeds  will  give  much  finer  specimens 
than  cuttings. 

All  seed  should  be  sown  in  well-drained,  shallow  boxes  or 
pans.  Use  sandy  soil  which  has  been  passed  through  a  fine 
sieve. 

Smooth  the  surface  carefully;  sow  the  seed  and  gently 
firm  the  soil  with  the  hand  or  a  piece  of  board.  All  such 
seeds  as  those  of  geranium,  mignonette,  asters,  chrysanthe- 
mums, should  have  a  light  covering  of  soil  sieved  over  them ; 
just  enough  to  cover  is  all  that  is  required. 

Very  fine  seed,  such  as  that  of  begonias  and  tydeas, 
should  be  sown  and  firmed  as  directed  above,  but  no  after 
covering  should  be  given.  Place  a  piece  of  blotting  paper 
or  soft  carpet  paper  directly  upon  the  earth  and  water  it 
through  this  paper,  which  should  be  removed  as  soon  as 
the  seeds  germinate.  Remove  the  seedlings,  and  plant 
them  in  separate  pots  or  boxes  as  soon  as  they  have  from 
four  to  six  leaves. 

The  following  plants  may  be  grown  with  ease  by  observ- 
ing the  above  precautions :  Geraniums,  oxalis,  cinerarias, 
abutilons,  chrysanthemums,  coleus,  cyclamen  (Alpine  vio- 
let), amaryllis,  freesias,  and  callas. 

If  the  seedlings  or  cuttings  should  be  attacked  by  moulds, 
the  following  treatment  is  recommended :  — 

(a)  Dry  the  plants,  leaving  just  enough  moisture  to  pre- 
vent withering;  (6)  water  in  the  morning  only ;  (c)  lower  the 
temperature  to  the  minimum  necessary  for  growth;  (d)  give 
plenty  of  fresh  air  and  sunshine ;  (e)  sprinkle  over  the  soil 
equal  parts  of  finely  powdered  sand  and  flowers  of  sulphur. 

Flowers  of  sulphur  can  be  bought  in  any  drug  store. 

If  you  are  interested  in  the  raising  of  trees,  shrubbery,  and  flowers, 
see  Bulletin  No.  34,  Iowa  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Article  : 
Home  Propagation. 

Which  of  our  domestic  animals  do  you  consider  the  most  intelligent  ? 


IX 

4 

REVIEW   OF   PLANTS   STUDIED 

PARTS   OF   PLANTS.       NOVEMBER 

MATERIAL  :  Plants  with  different  stems  from  the  school  herbarium  ; 
different  kinds  of  leaves  and  fruits. 

§  41.  1.  Roots.  — By  means  of  roots,  plants  are  held  firmly  in 
the  soil,  but  they  also  furnish  the  necessary  water  to  the  plants, 
and  with  it  certain  food  materials.  The  roots  of  trees  pene- 
trate very  deep  into  the  soil,  and  they  also  spread  very  far 
all  around  the  tree.  How  could  you  find  the  depth  and  dis- 
tance to  which  roots  of  trees  grow  ?  What  different  shapes 
of  roots  have  you  observed  ?  Many  plants  have  an  under- 
ground creeping  rootstock,  from  which  one  or  more  plants 
grow  in  spring.  Mention  some  such  plants. 

2.  The  Stem.  —  It  bears  the  branches,  twigs,  leaves,  Jlowers, 
and  fruit.  Most  plants  have  a  more  or  less  erect  stem. 
The  cucumber  has  a  long,  creeping  stem.  The  pea  clings  to 
sticks  or  to  other  plants  by  means  of  fine  tendrils,  which 
are  wound  around  their  support  like  springs.  Do  you  know 
of  plants  which  twine  around  poles  and  trees,  or  climb  up 
walls  and  trees,  holding  themselves  by  means  of  short  root- 
lets or  discs  ?  Examine  some  Virginia  Creeper  and  Wild 
Hops. 

Many  plants  can  readily  be  increased  by  cuttings  made 
from  their  twigs.  How  can  the  wild  and  undesirable  plants 
be  improved  by  budding  and  grafting  ? 

Observations.  —  Which  is  the  most  useful  ? 
90 


REVIEW   OF   PLANTS   STUDIED  91 

3.  Leaves.  —  The  leaves  are  as  important  to  the  life  of  plants 
as  roots.     The  largest  amount  of  the  food  of  plants  is  de- 
rived from  the  air  by  means  of  the  leaves.     If  a  plant  is 
defoliated,  it  may  reproduce  a  new  set  of  leaves  from  re- 
serve material  stored  in  its  tissue,  but  it  is  always  injured 
and  produces  little  or  no  fruit.     If  defoliation  is  repeated, 
the  plant  will  die.     Potato  beetles  and  caterpillars  often 
kill  plants  by  defoliation.     Leaves,  as  also  the  stem  and 
branches,  give  beauty  and  characteristic  forms  to  plants. 
Try  to  recall  a  number  of  the  different  forms  of  leaves  you 
have  observed.     Leaves  are  nearly  always  more  or  less  thin 
and  flat,  like  a  piece  of  paper,  because  this  shape  enables 
them  to  present  the  largest  possible  surface   to   the   air. 
You  will  not  find  leaves  that  are  tuberous  like  a  potato. 
The  leaf  veins  serve  to  keep  the  leaf  spread  out.     In  grasses 
and  lilies  they  run  nearly  parallel  to  one  another,  but  in  the 
leaves  of  most  of  the  plants  that  we  have  studied  they  form 
a  beautiful  network.     The  venation  is  best  seen  if  you  hold 
a  fresh  leaf  between  your  eyes  and  the  light.     By  far  the 
larger  number  of  trees  and  shrubs  in  northern  countries 
shed  their  leaves  in  the  fall.     As  the  temperature  of  the 
air  in  our  winters  remains  below  the  freezing-point  of  water 
for  months  at  a  time,  the  water  in  the  leaves  would '  freeze, 
growth  would  be  suspended,  and  the  leaves  would  only  fur- 
nish a  large  surface  for  snow  and  storms.     Our  trees  and 
shrubs  overcome  this  difficulty  by  producing  a  new  foliage 
in  spring,  and  by  shedding  it  when  the  season's  growth  has 
ceased. 

4.  Flowers.  —  Those  parts  of  a  plant  which  are  specially 
adapted  to  the  production  of  seed  are  called  the  flowers. 
The  essential  parts  of  a  flower  are  stamens  and  pistils.     It 
is  necessary  for  the  growth  of  seeds  that  pollen  from  the 
anthers  be  transferred  to  the  stigmas  of  the  pistils.     On  the 


Are  they  all  entitled  to  be  treated  wi 


92         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

moist  surface  of  the  stigma  the  pollen  grains  send  out  small 
tubes,  which  grow  through  the  style  into  the  tiny  ovules 
(seedlets)  below.  Unless  that  union  takes  place,  the  ovule 
does  not  develop  into  a  seed,  but  dies.  Some  flowers, 
like  the  tulip  and  lilies,  have  only  one  kind  of  floral  en- 
velop, which  is  called  the  perianth.  Others,  like  the 
grasses,  are  destitute  of  both  calyx  and  corolla.  Their 
stamens  and  pistils  are  protected  by  small  chaff-like  glumes 
or  bracts. 

The  chief  service  the  corolla  or  the  perianth  renders  the 
plant  is  the  attraction  of  insects.  They  come  to  eat  the 
honey  secreted  by  the  nectaries,  and  the  showy  corolla  or 
perianth  act  like  large  bright  signs,  showing  them  where  to 
go.  In  some  flowers,  as  the  Fuchsias,  the  calyx  also  has  a 
bright  color,  and  serves  to  attract  insects.  The  important 
service  insects  render  to  plants  is  the  carrying  of  pollen  from 
one  flower  to  another.  Inconspicuous  flowers  are  either 
wind-fertilized  or  self-fertilized.  Flowers  which  are  ferti- 
lized by  the  wind,  like  poplars,  hazels,  birches,  maples, 
grasses,  etc.,  produce  a  large  amount  of  pollen.  Can  you 
tell  why  that  should  be  necessary  ?  Most  of  our  well- 
known  plants  have  the  stamens  and  pistils  in  the  same 
flower;  some,  like  the  cucumber  family,  have  them  in  dif- 
ferent flowers ;  others,  like  the  poplars  and  willows,  pro- 
duce staininate  flowers  on  one  tree  and  pistillate  flowers  on 
another.  Only  pistillate  flowers  can  produce  seeds  ;  stami- 
nate  flowers  wither  and  dry  up  when  they  have  shed  their 
pollen. 

5.  Fruit.  —  The  ovary  with  the  mature  seeds  enclosed  is 
catted  the  fruit.  In  some  plants  the  calyx  tube  enlarges  and 
also  forms  a  part  of  the  fruit.  The  Berry,  as  shown  in  the 
currant,  the  gooseberry,  and  the  grape,  is  one  of  the  most 
common  kinds  of  fruit.  Here  the  whole  ovary  has  become 
fleshy.  The  Gourd  fruit  is  simply  a  very  large  berry  with 


REVIEW   OF  PLANTS   STUDIED  93 

a  hard  rind  and  a  soft  flesh  within.  In  the  apple,  pear, 
and  quince,  the  enlarged  calyx  tube  forms  the  edible  part. 
On  the  side  opposite  the  stem  the  lobes  of  the  calyx  can 
still  be  seen  in  the  ripe  fruit.  In  the  Stone  fruits,  the  outer 
part  of  the  ovary  has  become  fleshy  and  the  inner  part 
hard  and  stony.  What  other  varieties  of  fruits  have  you 
observed  ?  (See  Gray  :  "  Lessons  in  Botany.")  It  is  very 
important  to  the  life  of  plants  that  their  seeds  should 
not  all  remain  near  the  parent  plant.  Often  they  could 
not  grow  there  at  all,  and  if  they  were  not  carried  to 
other  places,  the  species  would  be  in  danger  of  becoming 
extinct.  When  we  studied  the  common  road  weeds,  we 
learned  that  small  seeds  are  often  carried  for  miles  by  the 
wind  and  also  by  water.  You  have  noticed  that  nearly  all 
berries,  when  ripe,  change  their  color  from  an  inconspicu- 
ous green  to  a  conspicuous  red,  black,  blue,  yellow,  or 
white.  Generally  the  taste  also  changes  from  sour  to  sweet. 
The  conspicuous  color  enables  birds  to  find  the  berries,  and 
the  sweetness  makes  them  palatable.  •  The  hard  seeds  in 
the  berries  pass  through  the  bird  without  being  digested, 
and  grow  if  they  happen  to  be  dropped  in  a  suitable  place. 
Can  you  think  of  other  contrivances  by  which  plants  dis- 
seminate their  seeds  ? 


X 

DOMESTIC   ANIMALS.      DECEMBER   TO 
FEBRUARY 

Of  the  many  thousands  of  wild  animals  but  few  have 
proved  profitable  for  man  to  domesticate.  How  important 
these  dumb  creatures  have  been  in  the  progress  of  civiliza- 
tion, we  shall  see  in  the  course  of  our  lessons.  Some  pro- 
vide us  with  food  and  clothing;  others  carry  burdens  or 
draw  heavy  loads ;  a  few  are  kept  for  the  pleasure  they  give 
us.  Did  it  ever  occur  to  you  that  we  should,  in  all  proba- 
bility, still  be  savages  if  our  ancestors  had  not  tamed  and 
domesticated  some  such  animals  as  horses  and  cattle  ?  No 
native  American  tribe  or  nation  possessed  a  domestic  ani- 
mal as  strong  as  horses,  mules,  or  oxen. 

§  42.   The  Dog. 

MATERIAL  :  The  following  will  be  found  helpful,  if  they  can  be  pro- 
cured: Pictures  of  different  varieties  of  dogs;  a  clean  skull,  to  show 
the  dentition.  Previous  observations  :  Teeth  of  dogs ;  their  food  ; 
what  dogs  can  learn ;  their  watchfulness,  faithfulness ;  difference  in 
individual  characters ;  dogs  drawing  sleds  and  carts.  Pupils  may 
supply  incidents  illustrating  the  intelligence  of  animals,  but  the 
teacher  must  not  let  them  side-track  her. 

Nearly  all  our  domestic  animals  have  been  tamed  and 
domesticated  by  man  in  prehistoric  times.  All  evidence  we 
can  procure  shows  that  the  dog  was  the  first  animal  help- 
mate and  companion  to  man.  In  the  stone  age,  when  man 

Observations.  —  Learn  to  recognize  the  following  trees  in  their  winter 
condition : 

94 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS  95 

had  not  yet  learned  to  work  the  common  metals,  but  made 
his  axes,  spear  and  arrow  heads  of  flint,  he  had  already 
domesticated  the  dog.  The  ancestral  wild  form  of  the  dog 
is  not  known.  It  is  probable  that  it  no  longer  exists  in  a 
wild  state,  but  it  must  have  been  an  animal  much  like  our 
wolves  and  the  jackals  of  Asia. 

Why  the  dog  was  easily  domesticated.  —  People  who  live  by 
hunting  often  capture  young  animals  and  take  them  home 
as  pets.  Wild  pups  caught  in  this  way  were  easily  fed  by 
savages  011  the  remnants  of  their  own  meals.  As  dogs  fol- 
low their  master  without  any  trouble  on  the  master's  part, 
savage  tribes  found  their  dogs  a  very  convenient  food  sup- 
ply, when  game  was  scarce.  Some  Indian  tribes,  Esquimaux, 
and  the  savages  of  Australasia  are  as  fond  of  dog  flesh  to-day 
as  we  are  of  mutton,  beef,  and  pork. 

Every  country  has  its  dogs.  —  As  the  dogs  learned  to  eat 
almost  everything  which  their  masters  ate,  they  were  en- 
abled to  follow  man  into  every  climate  from  Greenland  to 
New  Zealand.  To  this  very  day  dogs  are  the  only  domestic 
animals  of  the  Esquimaux  in  Greenland.  They  draw  his 
sleds,  furnish  him  warm  skins,  and  also  meat. 

Intelligence  of  the  dog. — That  the  dog  is  the  most  intelli- 
gent of  our  domestic  animals  hardly  needs  proof.  He  not 
only  knows  his  master,  but  also  a  number  of  other  persons. 
Among  his  human  acquaintances  are  some  whom  he  likes 
and  others  whom  he  hates.  Of  his  master's  praise  or  blame 
he  shows  a  very  keen  perception.  If  he  is  caught  blunder- 
ing and  laughed  at,  all  his  actions  show  that  he  feels 
ashamed.  But  it  is  by  his  conception  of  property,  and  by 
his  devotion  to  his  master,  that  he  rises  high  above  other 
animals.  Some  other  animals  can  be  taught  to  follow  the 

Willows,  aspen,  cottonwood,  white  elm,  box  elder,  soft  or  silver  maple, 
sugar  maple,  linden  or  basswood,  haekberry,  scarlet  oak,  bur  oak,  canoe 
birch,  white  ash,  butternut,  bitternut  or  swamp  hickory,  iron  wood. 


96         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

person  who  feeds  them  and  cares  for  them ;  they  also  show 
a  certain  amount  of  love  and  devotion  towards  him;  but 
none  except  the  dog  have  any  idea  about  their  master's 
property.  A  good  dog  will  follow  none  but  his  master  or 
a  good  acquaintance;  he  will  not  permit  a  stranger  to  take 
or  even  touch  any  of  his  master's  property.  He.  learns  to 
recognize  the  extent  of  a  lot  or  yard,  and  even  the  boundary 
of  a  small  farm.  If  a  stranger  attempts  to  drive  him  away 
from  his  own  territory,  he  shows  his  teeth  in  reply ;  but  if 
not  on  that  territory,  he  generally  runs  at  anybody's  order. 
He  even  seems  to  know  that  small  children  are  not  quite 
responsible  for  their  acts,  as  he  will  endure  much  cruelty 
on  their  part  which  he  resents  if  offered  by  grown  persons. 
Many  a  dog  will  rush  to  assist  his  master  if  the  latter  is 
assaulted,  and  almost  everybody  knows  some  well-authen- 
ticated story  where  a  dog  saved  the  life  of  a  person.  Have 
dogs  good  memories  ?  Compare  the  intelligence  of  the 
horse  with  that  of  the  dog. 

The  senses  of  hearing  and  of  smell  are  very  acute  in  the 
dog.  That  dogs  can  follow  the  tracks  of  animals  and  men 
by  scent  alone  seems  almost  incredible  to  us  whose  sense  of 
smell  is  not  very  keen.  Their  sense  of  sight  is  also  well 
developed,  but  as  they  do  not  stand  as  high  as  a  man, 
objects  which  we  plainly  see  are  often  hidden  from  their 
view. 

A  dog  has  three  kinds  of  teeth.  His  front  teeth  are 
called  incisors.  They  are  rather  small;  he  uses  them  to 
peel  off  flesh  from  bones.  His  eyeteeth  are  very  long,  and 
with  them  he  can  hold  an  animal  and  inflict  fearful  wounds. 
The  eyeteeth  are  also  called  canines.  Behind  the  canines 
are  the  molars.  These  are  very  strong,  and  in  chewing 
they  cut  or  crush  the  food.  His  jaws  are  worked  by 

Observations. — Where  can  you  find  hazel,  red  osier,  sumach,  wild 
grapevine,  Virginia  creeper,  false  bittersweet,  wahoo  or  burning  bush. 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS  97 

powerful  muscles,  which  enable  him  to  crush  large  and 
hard  bones.  Compare  the  teeth  of  a  sheep  with  those  of 
a  dog.  Procure  the  clean  jawbone  of  a  sheep  for  this  com- 


FIG.  22.    SKULL  OF  DOG. 

parison.  Can  you  judge  of  an  animal's  food  by  its  teeth  ? 
Foxes  and  wolves  have  teeth  like  a  dog.  Of  what  use  are 
the  large  canines  to  them  ?  Why  should  the  dog  have  the 
large  pointed  canines  ? 

§  43.   The  Cat. 

MATERIAL  :  The  clean  skull  of  a  cat  or  a  somewhat  enlarged  draw- 
ing of  it  on  the  blackboard.  Previous  observations  :  Retractile  claws 
of  the  cat;  its  teeth;  walking,  climbing,  jumping;  attitude  against 
dogs  ;  love  for  its  kittens. 

Although  the  cat  was,  no  doubt,  domesticated  much  later 
than  the  dog,  it  has  nevertheless  lived  in  the  company  of 
man  for  thousands  of  years.  It  is  probable  that  it  was  first 
tamed  by  the  ancient  Egyptians  and  that  the  wildcat  of 
Egypt  and  Nubia  is  its  ancestral  form.  In  Europe  it  did 
not  become  common  until  after  the  Crusades,  when  the  in- 
creased cultivation  of  grain  made  it  very  useful  for  check- 
ing the  increasing  numbers  of  mice  and  rats. 

On  the  twigs  of  the  last  two  you  will  find  beautiful  red  fruit. 


98         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

Both  cat  and  dog,  as  their  teeth  show,  belong  to  the  order  of 
flesh-eating  animals,  but  in  many  respects  they  differ  markedly 
from  each  other.  While  the  dog  becomes  so  strongly  attached 
to  man  himself,  the  cat  is  merely  attached  to  the  farm  or 
dwelling-place  of  its  owner.  If  a  family  in  town  moves, 
they  have  to  catch  their  cat  and  carry  it  with  them  or  it 
will  stay  in  the  deserted  home  for  a  while  and  then  try  to 
find  another  home.  In  parts  of  New  England  where  many 
farms  have  been  deserted,  the  cats  have  remained  around 
the  old  homesteads,  and  have  become  entirely  wild.  Even 
in  thickly  settled  districts  a  cat  sometimes  returns  to  the 
wilderness,  at  least  for  the  summer  months.  A  number  of 
years  ago  I  observed  in  southern  Minnesota  a  cat  which  lived 
in  the  woods  for  several  years.  Only  at  the  approach  of  a 
snowstorm  or  during  very  cold  weather  it  sought  food  and 
shelter  at  the  neighboring  farms  and  occasionally  came  into 
the  houses  with  the  other  cats. 

If  a  dog  loses  his  master,  he  generally  follows  the  first 
man  who  speaks  a  kind  word  to  him.  No  cases  are  known 
where  dogs  have  become  entirely  wild  and  have  multiplied 
in  the  feralized  state. 

In  intelligence  cats  are  almost  the  equal  of  dogs.  They 
easily  learn  to  open  a  door  or  to  understand  other  mechani- 
cal contrivances ;  but  they  will  not  learn  to  serve  man  as 
the  dog  does  in  many  ways.  The  love  some  people  show 
for  their  cats  is  a  rather  one-sided  affection ;  as  it  is,  at  least, 
very  doubtful  if  a  cat  has  any  real  love  for  its  master  or 
mistress. 

Structure  of  the  cat.  —  If  we  compare  the  movements  of  a 
cat  with  those  of  a  dog,  we  must  call  the  dog  a  clumsy  ani- 
mal, while  a  cat  is  one  of  the  most  lithe  and  agile  animals 
on  the  face  of  the  earth.  One  must  see  two  cats  fight  to 

Observations.  —  After  the  snow  has  melted,  look  for  shrubs  and  young 
trees  whose  bark  has  been  gnawed  off  by  rabbits  aud  smaller  rodents. 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS  99 

appreciate  their  quickness  of  motion.  The  bones  of  a  cat's 
leg  are  joined  at  angles,  which  give  much  spring  when  the 
legs  are  stretched  out,  and  this  arrangement,  together  with 
the  powerful  muscles  by  which  the  bones  are  moved,  give  the 
cat  the  power  of  making  the  well-known  long  and  sudden 
springs  upon  its  prey.  Both  dogs  and  cats  walk  on  tiptoe, 
but  the  cat's  walk  is  much  more  elastic  than  that  of  the  dog. 
The  speed  of  a  cat  in  running  and  walking  is  not  great,  but 
she  does  not  capture  her  prey  by  chasing  it.  The  nails  of  a 
dog  are  always  shown ;  they  touch  the  ground  and  are  dull ; 
but  the  cat  can  retract  hers  into  a  sheath.  She  does  not 
walk  on  them,  but  always  keeps  them  sharp  for  catching 
and  holding  her  prey,  for  climbing,  and  for  fighting.  The 
teeth  of  a  cat  are  very  much  like  those  of  a  dog,  but  her 
molars  are  sharper.  A  dog's  tongue  is  soft  above,  but  the 
cat's  is  covered  with  horny  projections,  by  means  of  which 
she  can  lick  the  flesh  from  bones. 

Senses.  —  Cats  have  keen  senses  of  sight,  hearing,  and 
smell.  The  pupil  of  their  eyes  is  so  constructed  that  it 
contracts  in  bright  light,  but  enlarges  in  the  evening  to  ad- 
mit what  little  light  there  is.  The  cat's  whiskers  serve  her 
as  organs  of  touch.  With  their  aid  she  feels  her  way  noise- 
lessly through  brush  and  grass  even  in  the  darkest  night. 
Thus  equipped  with  sharp  teeth  and  claws,  with  keen  senses, 
and  a  noiseless  tread,  she  becomes  an  ideal  hunter.  But 
with  these  qualities  she  combines  great  cunning  and  patience, 
and,  if  necessary,  she  will  lie  in  wait  near  a  mouse  hole  for 
hours. 

Courage  and  affection  for  her  kittens.  —  With  her  cousin, 
the  dog,  she  does  not  always  live  on  good  terms.  When 
we  say  that  brothers  and  sisters  live  like  cats  and  dogs,  we 
do  not  mean  to  pay  them  a  compliment.  When  a  dog 
attacks  the  cat,  she  generally  runs,  or  climbs  a  tree ;  but 

Notice  the  characteristic  mode  of  branching  of  each  tree. 


100         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

if  she  has  kittens,  she  will  attack  any  dog,  almost  always 
driving  him  off. 

Wild  members  of  the  cat  family.  —  If  you  have  ever  seen 
lions,  tigers,  and  panthers  in  a  circus,  you  must  have  noticed 
at  once  that  they  are  simply  gigantic  wildcats.  Look  at 
their  claws  and  teeth,  if  you  have  an  opportunity.  They 
all  catch  their  prey  by  crawling  up  to  it  and  then  seizing 
it  with  a  frightful  leap.  All  members  of  the  cat  family 
hunt  singly ;  but  wolves  and  jackals  often  hunt  in  packs. 
The  largest  member  of  the  cat  family  in  the  United  States 
is  the  Puma  or  American  Panther. 


Sheep  and  Cattle 

MATERIAL  :  Pictures  of  different  breeds  of  sheep  and  cattle  ;  pictures 
of  wild  sheep  and  cattle  would  also  be  desirable.  A  clean  skull  of  a 
sheep  is  very  desirable  ;  a  jawbone  or  several  teeth  of  a  cow ;  horns  of 
sheep  and  cattle  ;  antlers  of  a  deer. 

§  44.   The  Sheep. 

Ancestors  and  time  of  domestication.  —  As  early  as  3000  B.C. 
the  sheep  was  a  domesticated  animal  in  Egypt.  How  long 
before  that  man  first  tamed  the  sheep  and  kept  herds  of 
them  is  not  known.  It  was  one  of  the  domesticated  ani- 
mals of  the  old  Hebrews,  as  numerous  references  to  it  in 
the  Old  Testament  show  us. 

Asiatic  peoples  probably  derived  their  stock  of  sheep 
from  wild  species  of  that  continent.  According  to  recent 
investigations  arid  experiments  made  in  the  "  Tiergarten " 
at  Halle,  Germany,  the  European  breeds  have  for  their 
ancestor  the  Mouflon,  which,  to  this  day,  lives  wild  on  the 
mountains  of  Corsica.  Our  American  domestic  sheep  have, 
of  course,  been  introduced  from  Europe. 

The  sheep  is  most  valuable  to  people  who  need  warm 
clothing  for  cold  winters.  You  know  that  savages  wear 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS  101 

skins  in  cold  weather ;  but  where  would  all  the  skins  come 
from  to  clothe  the  inhabitants  of  the  northern  United 
States  and  of  northern  Europe  ?  Sheep  thrive  best  in 
a  dry  and  cool  climate.  Cattle  often  go  into  a  river  or 
lake  to  keep  cool,  but  sheep  never  do  that.  Can  you  think 
of  a  reason  why  sheep  dislike  heat  and  dampness  ?  All  the 
known  wild  sheep  of  the  earth  live  on  the  wildest  cliffs  of 
high  mountains,  where  the  winters  are  very  long  and  cold. 
One  of  the  noblest  wild  sheep  is  the  Kocky  Mountain  Big- 
horn, of  which  several  small  herds  live  in  the  Yellowstone 
Park.  It  is  much  larger  than  our  domestic  sheep,  and  the 
horns  of  the  ram  grow  to  an  enormous  size  and  acquire  a 
weight  of  fifty  pounds. 

Our  domestic  sheep  is  not  famous  for  its  intellectual 
powers ;  on  the  contrary,  its  stupidity  has  become  pro- 
verbial. Nevertheless  its  ancestor,  the  Mouflon  of  Corsica, 
our  bighorn,  and  other  wild  sheep  are  the  most  wary  ani- 
mals and  are  more  difficult  to  approach  than  deer  and  elk. 
Can  you  tell  how  the  tame  sheep  may  have  lost  its  wits  ? 

As  sheep  can  crop  very  short  grass  and  need  but  little 
water,  sheep  raising  often  pays  in  arid  regions,  where  cattle 
raising  would  not  be  profitable.  Some  breeds  are  princi- 
pally raised  for  mutton  and  others  more  for  their  wool. 

Although  even  the  largest  sheep  remain  very  much 
smaller  than  cattle,  the  two  animals  resemble  each  other 
very  much  in  structure ;  so  that  we  can  study  the  structure 
of  the  sheep  in  our  next  lesson,  in  which  we  shall  learn 
about  tame  and  wild  cattle. 

§  45.   Cattle. 

MATERIAL  :  The  same  as  for  the  sheep  ;  foot  of  a  sheep  ;  pieces  of 
tripe  bought  at  the  meat  market.  Previously  observed  :  Cud-chewing 
of  cattle  ;  their  food  ;  how  they  walk  and  run  ;  how  they  defend  them- 
selves ;  cow  and  calf ;  sociability  of  cattle  ;  oxen  in  the  yoke ;  how 
flies  and  mosquitoes  molest  them. 


102         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

From  written  and  unwritten  evidence,  we  know  that  man 
first  tamed  smaller  animals,  such,  as  the  dog,  the  pig,  and  the 
goat.  Dogs  and  pigs  are  omnivorous  and  required  therefore 
very  little  care ;  the  goat  is  at  least  omnivorous  as  far  as 
plants  are  concerned.  A  much  more  important  step  forward 
was  made  when  the  domestication  of  such  large  animals  as 
cattle  and  horses  was  accomplished. 

Several  species  of  wild  cattle  lived  in  Europe  and  Asia  in 
prehistoric  times,  and  furnished,  no  doubt,  the  most  impor- 
tant large  game  for  primitive  man.  All  species  of  wild 
cattle  are  gregarious ;  that  is,  they  live  in  large  herds,  in 
which  the  stronger  males  are  the  leaders.  Man  probably 
first  tried  simply  to  keep  these  wild  herds  together  and 
retain  them  within  the  territory  of  his  tribe.  Thus  the  first 
step  was  taken  to  tame  and  domesticate  these  large  beasts. 
Animals  captured  as  calves  were  no  doubt  the  first  ones 
entirely  tamed  and  domesticated.  These  tamed  beasts 
would  naturally  be  used  to  carry  or  drag  some  of  the  prop- 
erty, when  their  masters  sought  another  camping  place. 
After  a  tribe  had  become  permanently  settled  and  was  com- 
pelled to  depend  partly  on  agriculture  for  its  food  supply,  it 
was  an  easy  step  to  yoke  their  pack  oxen  to  a  rudely  con- 
structed plough.  The  advantage  of  a  people  who  possessed 
domesticated  cattle  over  those  who  had  none  can  hardly  be 
overestimated.  The  former  were  in  possession  of  an  almost 
inexhaustible  food  supply,  and  on  the  backs  of  their  beasts 
or  on  rude  wagons  they  could  move  their  families  and  their 
property  to  any  desired  place.  At  first,  man  did  not  use  the 
milk  of  his  beasts,  and  he,  no  doubt,  first  learned  to  milk 
smaller  animals  like  the  goat ;  but  when  he  did  learn  to  pro- 
cure and  use  the  milk  of  cattle,  another  large  food  supply 
was  added  to  his  dietary.  History  teaches  us  that  all 
nations  who  did  not  have  some  large,  strong  beast  of  biirden 
never  attained  to  any  high  degree  of  civilization.  Our  own 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS  103 

Indians,  for  instance,  never  tamed  the  buffalo,  and  remained 
savages. 

The  ancestors  of  our  domestic  cattle  are  probably  all  ex- 
tinct now.  At  the  time  of  the  Romans  and  even  late  into 
the  Middle  Ages  the  Aurochs  roamed  through  the  forests  of 
Europe.  Only  one  herd  of  a  few  hundred  is  now  left  in  a 
forest  of  Lithuania.  Of  the  thousands  of  Bison  which  less 
than  fifty  years  ago  roamed  over  our  Western  prairies  only 
a  small  herd  of  not  more  than  fifty  individuals  survives  in 
the  Yellowstone  Park.  Do  you  not  think  it  is  a  shame 
that  these  noble  animals  were  so  brutally  slaughtered? 

Return  to  wild  state.  —  If  tame  cattle  are  left  to  themselves 
in  the  woods  or  on  the  prairie,  they  soon  turn  wild  again, 
and,  if  the  climate  is  not  too  severe,  increase  very  rapidly. 
Thousands  of  wild  cattle,  whose  domesticated  ancestors 
were  brought  from  Europe  by  the  Spaniards,  now  roam  over 
the  plains  of  South  America.  The  ranch  cattle  of  our 
Western  States  and  of  Texas  are  half  wild.  You  must  read 
an  account  of  the  wild  South  American  cattle  and  also  of 
the  ranch  cattle  in  the  United  States.  Sheep  will  not  in- 
crease if  left  to  themselves.  Can  you  tell  why  not?  All 
wild  and  half-wild  cattle  develop  long  horns  and  easily 
defend  themselves  and  their  calves  against  wolves  and  other 
beasts  of  prey. 

Food.  —  The  principal  food  of  tame  and  wild  cattle  con- 
sists of  different  kinds  of  grasses ;  but  tame  cattle  are  very 
fond  of  grain  and  also  learn  to  relish  various  cultivated 
herbs  and  roots.  Deer,  goats,  and  sheep  are  very  fond  of 
browsing  on  the  twigs  of  trees  and  shrubs ;  cattle,  on  the 
other  hand,  will  browse  but  little  if  they  have  plenty  of 
good  grass.  (Compare  the  lesson  on  the  grasses.) 

Teeth  and  stomach.  —  What  a  difference  there  is  between 
the  teeth  of  a  cat  and  those  of  a  sheep !  The  teeth  of  a  cow 
are  like  those  of  a  sheep,  only  much  larger.  The  upper 


104        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

jaws  of  both  sheep  and  cattle  have  no  front  teeth ;  especially 
developed  eyeteeth,  like  the  canines  in  the  cats  and  dogs, 
are  wanting  in  both  upper  and  lower  jaws.  Notice  the  large 
gap  between  the  lower  incisors  and  the  molars.  What  large 
surfaces  the  molars  have,  and  what  curious  hard  ridges  they 
show !  Why  these  peculiar  teeth  ?  Let  us  consider  how 
and  what  the  animal  eats,  and  we  can  perhaps  answer  the 
question.  Cattle  cannot  bite  off  the  grass  they  eat.  Why 


b 

FIG.  23. 
a,  skull  of  a  cow  showing  dentition ;  6,  incisors ;    c,  molars. 

not  ?  They  gather  it  with  their  tongue,  draw  it  in  between 
their  lower  front  teeth  and  the  hard  upper  gum,  and  then 
pluck  it  off.  Do  they  pull  it  upward  or  downward  ?  They 
gather  a  big  mouthful,  and,  rolling  it  into  a  ball  without 
chewing  it  thoroughly,  swallow  it.  Now  you  must  look  at 
the  drawing  of  a  cow's  stomach.  (See  figure.)  From  the 
gullet,  the  food  passes  into  the  large  paunch  to  the  left; 
after  it  has  been  soaked  here  for  some  time,  it  passes  into 
the  honeycomb  bag,  so  called  from  the  cells  on  its  interior 
wall.  Now  you  have  all  observed  that  cattle  and  sheep  often 
chew  and  chew  for  hours  while  they  are  lying  down,  and  ap- 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS 


105 


parently  not  eating  anything.  If  you  have  formed  the  habit 
of  observing  carefully,  you  must  have  seen  that  from  time 
to  time  they  swallow  a  mouthful,  and  that  this  food  passes 
down  through  the  gullet  into  the  stomach.  A  few  moments 
later,  you  will  notice  something  passing  up  through  the 
gullet  and  into  the  animal's  mouth  with  a  peculiar  belching 
sound.  Evidently  the  animal  is  far  from  being  sick  or  un- 
comfortable, for  it  at  once  begins  to  chew,  this  ball  with  ap- 
parent satisfaction.  The  ball  which  you  saw  passing  up  is 
called  the  cud.  It  came 
out  of  the  honeycomb  bag. 
After  the  cud  is  thor- 
oughly masticated,  it  is 
swallowed  a  second  time ; 
but  now  passes  into  the 
third  stomach,  which  is 
provided  with  many  folds 
of  delicate  membrane  re- 
sembling the  leaves  of  a 
book;  from  this  it  is  car- 
ried into  the  fourth  stom- 
ach, where  most  of  it  is 
digested,  and  the  remain- 
der passed  on  into  the  small  intestine.  (The  teacher  ought 
to  observe  these  parts  in  a  freshly  killed  sheep.)  The  whole 
stomach  then,  as  we  learned,  consists  of  four  parts:  the 
large  paunch,  the  honeycomb  bag,  the  many-plies  or  third 
stomach,  and  the  fourth  stomach. 

How  the  stomach  of  the  cud-chewers  is  adapted  to  their  food, 
size,  and  mode  of  life.  —  I  suppose  you  know  that  sheep  and 
goats,  as  well  as  cattle,  chew  the  cud.  All  wild  cattle,  sheep, 
goats,  antelopes,  and  deer  are  cud-chewers,  and  they  also 
have  teeth  like  sheep  and  cattle.  As  you  see  now,  many 
very  large  and  heavy  animals  are  Ruminants  (cud-chewers). 


FIG.  24.    STOMACH  OF  A  SHEEP. 

a,  gullet ;  b,  paunch ;  c,  honeycomb  hag ; 
d,  many-plies;  e,  fourth  stomach; 
/,  small  intestine. 


106         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

All  eat  nothing  but  vegetable  food,  of  which  all,  especially 
the  largest,  need  a  great  deal.  In  order  that  the  animal 
may  completely  digest  the  often  hard  and  tough  grasses, 
leaves,  twigs,  etc.,  it  has  a  stomach  which  first  soaks  and 
softens  the  coarse  food,  then  returns  it  to  the  mouth  to  be 
ground  fine  (Have  you  observed  the  grinding  motion  and 
sound  of  the  cow's  jaws  ?),  then  soaks  it  again  in  the  many- 
plies,  and  finally  digests  it  in  the  fourth  stomach.  If  the 
ruminants  had  to  masticate  their  food  at  once,  the  domesti- 
cated ones  would  have  to  walk  about  all  day ;  but  now 
they  gather  their  food  in  the  cool  hours  of  evening  and 
morning,  and  later  in  the  day  lie  down  in  a  cool  shady  place 
to  ruminate  and  rest ;  provided  their  owner  has  had  sense 
and  sympathy  enough  to  provide  them  such  a  place.  Wild 
ruminants,  like  deer,  elk,  and  moose,  must  often  graze  in 
open  places  where  they  are  exposed  to  many  dangers ;  they 
are  able  to  gather  their  food  in  a  short  time  and  then  retreat 
into  a  thicket,  or  lie  down  in  the  tall  grass  and  brush,  where 
they  are  not  easily  seen  and  where  flies  cannot  molest  them 
so  much. 

Adaptation  of  the  legs  and  feet  of  ruminants  to  their  en- 
vironment. —  That  the  heavy  body  of  ruminants  has  strong 
legs  to  support  it,  we  see  every  day ;  but  it  is  the  animal's 
foot  which  shows  the  most  beautiful  adaptation  to  the  needs 
of  the  animal.  Cattle  in  their  wild  and  half-wild  state  often 
must  make  long  marches  over  hard  and  stony  ground  to 
find  water  and  food.  Domestic  cattle  move  about  in  their 
pastures  and  are  employed  to  draw  ploughs  and  wagons. 
Deer  and  antelopes  travel  long  distances  in  search  of  food 
and  water,  and  are  often  compelled  to  flee  from  pursuing 
enemies.  For  these  uses  the  cloven  foot  answers  the  purpose 
exactly.  The  two  strongly  developed  toes  are  encased  in  a 
thick  horn  shoe,  which  wears  but  slowly  on  the  hard  prairie 
or  in  the  brush.  The  animals  need  no  shoemaker,  and  if  they 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS  107 

run  about  do  not  need  to  trim  their  hoofs,  because  they  grow 
exactly  as  fast  as  they  wear  away.  On  the  back  of  the  foot 
are  two  small  toes,  which  do  not  touch  the  ground  when  the 
animal  walks  011  a  hard  surface,  but  they  are  of  use  in 
getting  over  swamps  and  bogs.  I  think  you  can  see  now 
that  an  ox  would  soon  have  sore  feet  if  he  had  to  walk  on 
four  bare  toes,  like  a  cat.  Why  must  the  hoofs  of  cattle 
be  trimmed  if  the  animals  are  entirely  stable-fed  ? 

Weapons  of  self-defence.  —  If  you  make  a  dog  angry,  he 
will  try  to  bite  you.  The  teeth  with  which  he  tears  and 
crushes  his  food  are  also  his  weapons  of  defence  and  attack. 
Cattle  use  their  teeth  only  to  masticate  their  food.  When 
a  cow  defends  herself  or  her  calf  against  a  dog,  or  fights 
with  other  cattle,  she  uses  her  horns,  and  every  dog  knows 
that  they  are  formidable  weapons  and  avoids  them  care- 
fully. Most  bulls  become  vicious  when  they  are  about  four 
years  old.  Many  a  farmer  has  been  gored  and  trampled  to 
death  by  his  own  bull.  This  shows  that  the  males  of  our 
cattle  still  retain  a  good  deal  of  their  wild  fury,  although 
the  species  were  domesticated  thousands  of  years  ago.  Do 
you  think  horns  are  of  any  use  to  domestic  cattle  and  their 
owners  ?  Are  they  not  a  nuisance  ?  Why  do  some  farmers 
dehorn  their  cattle  ?  The  horn  itself  is  hollow,  but  it  fits 
tightly  over  a  bony  core,  which  contains  many  blood-vessels. 
Does  it  hurt  the  cow  to  cut  the  tips  of  her  horns,  if  you 
do  not  touch  the  core  ?  Do  you  think  dehorning  cattle  is 
cruel  ?  It  causes  them  considerable  pain.  Some  domestic 
cattle  have  no  horns. 

All  wild  cattle,  sheep,  and  antelopes  have  horns,  which 
they  need  very  much  to  defend  themselves  and  their  young 
against  beasts  of  prey;  but  they  also  use  their  feet  for  this 
purpose.  Ruminants  of  the  deer  family  bear  branched 
antlers,  which  on  our  noble  elk  and  moose  reach  an  enor- 
mous size,  attaining  a  weight  of  from  fifty  to  eighty  pounds. 


108        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

And  these  antlers  grow  in  about  ten  weeks.  Every  year 
they  are  shed  towards  the  end  of  winter,  and  they  grow 
anew  in  summer.  The  bulls  and  bucks  only  have  horns, 
with  which  they  fight  fierce  battles  against  each  other. 
Against  beasts  of  prey,  the  does  and  cows  of  this  family 
strike  with  their  feet.  But  we  must  postpone  learning 
more  about  these  most  beautiful  of  all  mammals  to  some 
other  time. 

Products  derived  from  cattle,  sheep,  and  other  ruminants :  — 

As  the  facts  concerning  this  part  of  the  lesson  are  well  known,  only 
an  outline  is  given  here,  which  the  teacher  should  expand  and  treat  of 
in  detail. 

1.  Meat  —  beef,  mutton,  venison. 

2.  Milk,  butter,  and  cheese. 

3.  Hides  for  leather. 

4.  Wool  for  clothing. 

5.  Hair  for  felt,  etc. 

6.  Tallow. 

7.  Valuable  manure. 

8.  Bones  and  horns. 

The  teacher  should  read  some  good  account  of  the  trans- 
portation of  live-stock  from  this  country  to  Europe,  and 
about  exportation  of  frozen  mutton  from  Australia,  and  tell 
the  pupils  about  it. 

Formerly  oxen  were  used  as  draft  animals  much  more 
than  now ;  they  were  thus  used  by  the  early  settlers  on  our 
prairies.  What  makes  oxen  valuable  draft  animals  in  a  new 
country  ?  Why  are  they  almost  entirely  supplanted  by 
horses  when  the  country  becomes  well  settled  ? 

Conclusion.  —  We  learned  some  time  ago  why  the  grasses 
are  the  most  valuable  plants.  In  the  lessons  just  finished  we 
have  learned  that  the  cud-chewing  animals  provide  us  with  a 
large  and  very  important  part  of  our  animal  food,  and  that 
with  their  wool,  skins,  and  hair  they  furnish  us  the  most  valu- 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS  109 

able  material  for  clothing  and  foot  wear.  Do  you  think  we 
could  be  very  comfortable  without  cattle,  sheep,  or  goats  ?  To 
this  order  also  belong  most  of  the  Big  Game  animals  of  this 
and  other  countries.  But  noivhere  in  the  temperate  zone  is 
there  a  fleeter  runner  than  our  Virginia  Deer,  larger  game 
than  bur  Bison,  a  more  majestic  creature  than  our  Elk,  or  a 
grander  Monarch  of  the  Wilderness  than  our  Moose.  Every 
patriotic  citizen  ought  to  do  his  best  to  preserve  these  grand 
beauties  of  our  forests  and  mountains.  Unless  the  laws  regu- 
lating the  hunting  of  them  are  conscientiously  observed,  all  of 
these  beautiful  animals  are  in  danger  of  becoming  forever 
extinct. 

Send  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  for  a  report  on  the  Yellow- 
stone Park.  Read  Shaler's  book  on  Domesticated  Animals. 

§  46.   The  Hog. 

MATERIAL  :  Pictures  of  wild  boar,  and  of  one  or  more  breeds  of 
domestic  hog ;  a  clean  skull  or  jawbone,  which  can  be  obtained  in 
any  household  or  from  any  butcher.  Previously  observed  :  Rooting, 
blowing,  grunting,  and  squealing  of  hogs ;  rolling  in  mud ;  how 
other  hogs  are  attracted  by  the  squealing  of  one. 

Although  the  pig  is  generally  not  very  highly  spoken  of, 
it  has  nevertheless  performed,  and  still  performs,  an  im- 
portant duty  for  man.  It  furnishes  savory  roasts  and  sau- 
sages for  millions  of  hungry  mouths.  As  soon  as  a  tribe 
of  savages  becomes  settled,  their  supply  of  meat  has  to  be 
largely  obtained  from  domestic  animals.  For  this  purpose 
man  tamed  an  animal  which  largely  supplied  his  wants,  and 
which  has  never  been  raised  for  any  other  purpose.  Our 
pigs  are  descended  from  the  wild  hogs  of  Europe  and  Asia. 
The  wild  boar  still  lives  in  its  native  state  in  some  of  the 
larger  forests  of  continental  Europe ;  but  in  most  places  the 
creatures  have  been  exterminated,  because  they  do  very 
much  damage  in  fields  which  adjoin  the  forests.  The 
domestication  took  place  at  a  very  early  period,  and  must 


110 


HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 


have  been  quite  easy,  because  the  animal  is  truly  omnivo- 
rous. When  the  Israelites  left  Egypt  and  when  the  Greeks 
laid  siege  to  ancient  Troy,  the  hog  was  a  common  domestic 
animal  in  southwestern  Asia  and  in  central  and  southern 
Europe. 

Habits.  —  The  pig  is  not  held  up  to  children  as  a  model 
of  cleanliness.  It  likes  to  lie  down  in  muddy  pools ;  it 
eats  many  things  which  we  do  not  consider  clean,  but  so 
do  chickens,  ducks,  and  geese,  and  yet  we  eat  them  all.  Poor 
piggy  has  no  long  bushy  tail  with  which  to  drive  away  the 


FIG.  25.    EUROPEAN  WILD  BOAR. 

flies,  nor  is  he  so  built  that  he  can  reach  every  part  of  his 
body  with  his  teeth.  Therefore,  when  the  thermometer 
registers  eighty  in  the  shade  and  flies  are  thick,  he  rolls 
and  dozes  in  the  mud  or  pool,  and  thus  he  solves  the  heat 
and  insect  problem  at  once.  Too  often  man  compels  the 
pigs  to  be  very  much  dirtier  than  they  like  to  be.  If  pigs 
have  a  clean  place  to  sleep  in,  most  of  them  will  keep  their 
bodies  cleaner  than  horses  keep  theirs. 

Intelligence  and  sympathy.  —  Every  farmer  knows  how 
quick  pigs  learn  to  recognize  the  person  who  brings  them 
food,  and  in  how  many  ways  they  learn  to  find  food  for 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS  111 

themselves.  It  is  very  easy  to  make  a  pet  out  of  a  pig, 
so  that  it  will  follow  its  master  everywhere,  and  pigs  have 
been  taught  to  do  things  which  a  horse  would  scarcely 
learn.  Had  man  at  all  tried  to  develop  the  natural  intelli- 
gence of  these  animals  by  careful  breeding,  our  pigs  might 
be  as  intelligent  now  as  our  best  dogs.  I  have  personally 
witnessed  the  following  instance  of  our  porker's  wits. 
When  a  boy,  I  was  bidden  with  several  companions 
to  keep  the  pigs  off  a  certain  meadow.  Our  task  was 
not  an  arduous  one ;  for  the  pigs  had  to  cross,  on  a  single 
plank,  a  creek,  which  was  about  ten  feet  wide  and  had 
high  banks  and  a  muddy  bottom.  But  one  old  sow  had 
already  discovered  this  secret  path,  and  it  was  not  long 
before  we  saw  her  feeding  on  the  juicy  grass  of  the  for- 
bidden meadow.  Three  or  four  of  us,  all  provided  with 
whips  and  switches,  crossed  the  creek.  We  had  a  plan 
to  catch  the  old  thing  and  "to  give  it  to  her."  After 
we  had  turned  the  plank  on  edge,  we  approached  the 
animal  as  near  as  possible  and  then  rushed  at  her.  Being 
of  the  common,  fleet-footed  breed  of  the  country,  she  easily 
outran  us.  All  of  us  were  much  amused  at  the  pre- 
dicament in  which  we  had  the  old  grunter ;  we  were  sure 
she  would  stop  at  the  creek.  When  she  reached  the  plank, 
she  did  stop  and,  for  an  instant,  looked  puzzled ;  but  in 
much  less  time  than  it  takes  to  tell  it,  she  had  solved  the 
problem.  With  one  quick  push  of  her  snout  she  turned  the 
plank  on  its  flat  side  and  ran  across.  Although  we  were  not 
more  than  about  fifteen  feet  behind  the  animal,  not  one  of 
us  had  a  chance  to  use  his  switch,  so  quick  was  the  hog  to 
see  through  our  contrivance.  I  must  say  that  the  surprise 
was  nearly  all  on  our  side,  and  that  it  took  some  time  before 
we  realized  that  a  group  of  "  smart "  boys  had  been  simply 
outwitted  by  a  sow.  Pigs  show  a  great  deal  of  sympathy  with 
their  own  kind.  If  one  utters  the  characteristic  cry  of  dis- 


112        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

tress,  others  will  at  once  rush  to  its  assistance  and  attack 
its  assailant.  In  this  respect  they  seem  to  rank  even  above 
the  dog.  What  else  can  a  pig  indicate  by  its  voice,  besides 
distress  ? 

Value  of  hogs  to  man.  —  As  far  as  meat  alone  is  concerned, 
the  hog  is  at  least  as  valuable  to  us  as  horned  cattle.  They 
attain  their  full  growth  in  a  much  shorter  time  than  cattle ; 
their  meat  is  easily  preserved  by  salting  and  smoking,  and 
can  be  cooked  in  its  own  fat.  For  men  who  do  hard  physi- 
cal work,  as  farmers,  lumbermen,  miners,  -soldiers  in  the 
field,  and  sailors,  pork  is  the  principal  meat  diet.  In  the 
big  slaughterhouses  of  Chicago  alone  from  thirty  to  sixty 
thousand  grunters  are  converted  into  pork  in  one  day. 
Among  modern  nations,  Americans  and  Germans  are  the 
greatest  consumers  of  pork. 

Structure.  —  The  feet  of  the  pig  are  cloven ;  each  foot  has 
four  toes,  but  only  two  touch  the  ground.  Although  the 
foot  of  a  pig  resembles  a  cow's  foot  very  much,  the  pig's 
dentition  and  its  stomach  are  entirely  different  from  those 
of  cattle.  You  see  at  once,  if  you  examine  a  pig's  jaw- 
bones, that  it  has  all  three  kinds  of  teeth.  In  the  wild 
boar,  the  eyeteeth  are  powerful,  long  tusks,  which  are 
curved  upwards  and  project  from  the  mouth.  The  boar 
cannot  chew  with  them.  Can  you  think  what  use  he  may 
make  of  them?  In  the  domestic  pig,  these  teeth  remain 
small.  With  its  front  teeth  the  pig  can  graze,  shell  corn, 
pick  up  nuts,  acorns,  worms,  and  other  food.  Now  let  us 
look  at  its  molars.  Do  you  think  they  are  fit  for  grinding, 
like  the  molars  of  a  cow  ?  Why  not  ?  Are  they  sharp 
and  pointed  like  the  teeth  of  a  cat  ?  Do  hogs  eat  flesh  ? 
Do  they  move  their  jaws  like  cattle  and  horses,  when  they 
eat? 

A  hog's  stomach  is  a  very  simple  affair.  If  you  have 
never  seen  one,  look  for  it  the  next  time  a  pig  is  killed  in 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS  113 

the  household,  or  ask  the  local  butcher  to  show  you  one. 
It  consists  of  only  one  compartment ;  the  digestion  of  the 
food  begins  at  once,  and  none  of  it  is  masticated  a  second 
time.  Although  the  animal's  digestion  is  very  strong,  piggy 
does  not  eat  hay  and  straw,  because  he  knows  that  he  could 
not  digest  it  and  that  it  would  make  him  sick.  In  this  re- 
spect he  surpasses  in  wisdom  many  little  folks  and  some 
big  folks.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  hog's  and  a 
cow's  stomach?  Can  you  tell  why  a  hog  could  not  digest 
hay  and  straw  ? 

NOTE.  —  Hog's  meat  should  never  be  eaten  raw  in  any  form.  So- 
called  measly  meat  causes  the  tapeworm  which  lives  in  the  human 
intestines  and  often  proves  very  troublesome.  A  still  more  dangerous 
parasite  is  the  trichina,  a  very  small  worm.  If  infected  pork  is  eaten 
raw,  the  young  trichinas  find  their  way  from  the  stomach  into  the 
muscles,  where  they  remain  permanently  at  rest  in  little  capsules. 
If  present  in  large  numbers,  they  cause  serious  illness,  and  they  may 
even  cause  death. 

§  47.   The  Horse. 

MATERIAL  :  Pictures  of  different  breeds  of  horses.  A  clean  jaw- 
bone, hoof,  and  bones  of  a  foot  would  be  valuable.  Previously  ob- 
served :  Bearing  of  different  horses,  biting,  kicking,  grazing. 

The  domestication  of  the  horse  was  accomplished  in  pre- 
historic times ;  but  it  was  most  likely  one  of  the  last  animals 
subjugated  by  man.  A  high  civilization  had  been  main- 
tained in  Egypt  before  the  horse  was  introduced  by  invad- 
ing nomads  from  Asia.  The  patriarchs  of  Israel,  although 
they  were  nomads,  had  no  horses ;  and  it  was  not  until  the 
time  of  Solomon  that  the  horse  became  common  among  the 
Israelites.  There  are  still  wild  horses  living  in  central 
Asia.  They  are  of  a  mouse-gray  color  and  about  the  size  of 
ponies.  Whether  these  wild  horses  or  some  extinct  forms 
are  ancestors  of  our  horses  is  not  known.  No  wild  horses 
lived  in  America  when  the  country  was  discovered  by 


114         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

Columbus.     Where  do  the  wild  horses  in  South  America 
come  from  ? 

Value  of  the  horse  to  civilization.  —  A  number  of  qualities 
combined  have  made  the  horse  the  most  valuable  of  all  our 
domestic  animals. 

1.  It  is  of  just  the  right  size.  —  If  it  were  as  large  as  the 
elephant,  it  could  not  be  properly  controlled ;  if  it  were  very 
much  smaller  than  it  is,  it  would  be  too  weak. 

2.  Its  body  has  just  the  right  shape  for  the  rider.  —  Compare 
the  horse  and  the  ox  as  saddle  animals. 

3.  Although  it  is  a  big  animal,  it  can  nevertheless  travel 
fast.  —  Can  you  tell  why  most  farmers  prefer   horses   to 
oxen? 

4.  Its  foot,  covered  by  one  strong  hoof,  is  the  best  foot  in  the 
whole  animal  world  for  travelling  far  over  hard  ground. 

5.  The  horn  of  the  hoof  is  thick  enough  to  admit  of  an 
iron  shoe  being  nailed  under  it,  and  this  fact  adds  greatly  to 
the  value  of  the  horse.     If  unshod,  its  feet  would  soon  become 
sore  on  our  hard,  artificial  roads  and  our  paved  city  streets ; 
but  with  his  iron  shoes  on,  a  horse  can  walk  all  day  on  the 
hardest  paved  street.     Horses  that  run  free  in  the  pasture 
do  not  need  to  be  shod.     Can  you  tell  why  not  ? 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans 
did  not  know  the  horseshoe.  It  came  into  use  about 
300  A.D.  ;  but  the  inventor  is  not  known. 

6.  The  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  horse's  teeth  enables  its 
master  to  control  it  by  means  of  a  bit. 

7.  Although  it  thrives  best  in  moderately  warm  and  moist 
regions,  it  has  shown  great  power  of  acclimatization  and  has 
spread  far  north  and  south.     It  breeds  as  well  in  the  domes- 
ticated as  in  the  wild  state ;  and  its  body  is  so  elastic  that 
by  a  careful  selection  of  breeders,  man  has  produced  many 
varieties  (or  breeds)  suitable  for  different  purposes. 

The  elephant,  although  much  more  intelligent  than  the 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS  115 

horse,  does  not  regularly  breed  in  captivity.  The  domesti- 
cated stock  has  to  be  kept  up  by  animals  caught  from  the 
wild  herds.  Is  it  not  strange  that  these  enormous  brutes 
will  very  soon  obey  the  word  and  beckon  of  their  masters, 
who  have  absolutely  no  physical  control  over  them  ? 

There  is  no  doubt  that  horses  were  at  first  domesticated 
for  the  meat  they  furnished.  The  ancient  Germans,  Anglo- 
Saxons,  and  Scandinavians  sacrificed  horses  to  their  gods 
and  were  fond  of  horseflesh ;  the  value  of  horses  as  draft  and 
saddle  animals  they  learned  later.  In  many  large  European 
cities,  where  meat  is  very  high  in  price,  several  shops  pub- 
licly sell  horse  meat  and  horse  sausages,  and  they  have  a 
considerable  trade,  but  mostly  among  poor  people.  The 
Greek  heroes  of  Homer  did  not  ride  to  battle  on  horseback. 
Horses  were  employed  only  to  draw  their  war  chariots ;  in 
agriculture,  the  Greeks  of  that  time  used  oxen. 

In  modern  times  the  horse  has  nearly  supplanted  the  ox 
as  a  draft  animal,  and  completely  supplanted  it  as  a  saddle 
animal. 

However,  within  the  last  twenty-five  years  a  peculiar 
revolution  has  been  going  on.  The  noble  horse  himself  is 
being  supplanted  by  steam  and  electricity.  Not  more  than  ten 
years  ago  our  large  cities  employed  thousands  of  horses  in 
their  street-car  systems;  to-day  there  is  not  a  single  horse- 
car  in  several  of  them.  The  result  is  that  horses  are  very 
cheap.  But  in  spite  of  this  revolution  it  seems  that  farmers, 
the  world  over,  will  always  have  need  of  a  large  number  of 
horses. 

The  horse  in  war.  —  The  horse  has  probably  been  the  most 
important  factor  in  the  aggressive  and  victorious  march  of 
the  Aryan  race  to  the  conquest  of  the  world.  The  armed 
European  horseman  struck  terror  into  the  hearts  of  the 
bravest  Mexican  and  Peruvian  soldiers,  and  to-day  the  horse- 
less American  natives  have  either  vanished  or  dwindled 


116         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

into  insignificance.  The  Arabs,  who  were  perfect  horsemen, 
conquered  northern  Africa  and  Spain  within  about  a  hun- 
dred years.  They  only  met  defeat  when  they  encountered 
the  Franks,  who  had  probably  stronger  and  more  enduring 
horses  than  they. 

At  the  time  of  the  mediaeval  knights  war  could  not  be 
carried  on  without  horses.  It  is  true  that  through  the 
invention  of  gunpowder  the  cavalry  lost  much  of  its 
importance.  Still,  if  cavalry  is  of  less  importance,  the 
heavy  artillery  is  of  so  much  more  importance;  and  how 
could  a  general  move  his  heavy  guns  about  the  field  if  he 
had  no  horses ;  or  how  could  food  and  ammunition  be  dis- 
tributed to  millions  of  soldiers  scattered  over  hundreds  of 
square  miles  if  the  army  had  no  horses  ?  Can  you  think 
of  other  work  for  which  an  army  must  have  horses  ?  Thus 
we  see  that  for  purposes  of  war  the  horse  is  absolutely  indispen- 
sable to  us;  because  it  lends  to  man's  intelligence  the  physical 
power  and  the  Jleetness  of  its  noble  body.  A  good  horse  and  a 
good  rider  almost  act  as  one  being. 

Intelligence  of  horses.  —  One  who  has  carefully  studied  the 
subjects,  and  compared  the  horse  in  this  respect  with  the  cat 
and  the  dog,  must  come  to  the  same  conclusion  with  Shaler 
in  his  interesting  book  on  "  Domesticated  Animals/'  that  the 
intelligence  of  the  horse  is  popularly  rated  too  high.  It 
does  not  show  the  real,  almost  human,  affection  for  its  mas- 
ter of  which  the  dog  gives  unquestioned  evidence ;  nor  has 
it  the  cunning  of  cats  and  monkeys.  The  insane  fright  it 
shows  at  many  strange  and  even  some  frequently  observed 
objects  does  not  speak  high  for  its  intelligence.  Many 
horses  have,  however,  no  doubt  a  good  memory,  and  will 
learn  a  road  sooner  than  most  drivers.  As  their  nose  is  not 
near  the  ground,  they  must  follow  the  road  by  the  objects 
seen  along  it.  Have  breeding  horses  been  selected  with  a 
view  to  rearing  intelligent  offspring,  or  to  perpetuate  some 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS  117 

desirable  physical  quality  ?     On  what  principles  does  man 
select  breeders  among  dogs  ? 

Structure.  —  The  horse  has  only  one  toe  on  each  foot. 
Compare  a  horse's  foot  with  the  feet  of  other  animals  that 
you  have  studied.  The  first  horses  which  appeared  on  the 
earth  had  four  toes,  which  were  separated  from  each  other, 
and  the  animals  were  about  as  large  as  foxes.  On  this 
interesting  subject  you  must  consult  some  elementary  geol- 
ogy. Compare  the  dentition  of  the  horse  with  that  of  mam- 
mals you  have  studied.  Does  a  horse  ruminate  ?  Are  its 
teeth  fit  for  grinding  hard  food  ?  How  does  it  move  its 
jaws  when  eating  ?  Why  can  horses  graze  on  very  closely 
cropped  meadows  ? 

The  Poultry  Yard 

§  48.   Domestic  Chickens. 

MATERIAL  :  Pictures  of  different  breeds  ;  a  clean  skull  prepared  by 
boiling  a  head  with  the  bill  on  it.  Previously  observed  :  Hens  scratch- 
ing for  food  and  protecting  their  chicks.  For  pictures,  see  Farmers' 
Bulletin,  No.  51,  Standard  Varieties  of  Chickens. 

The  jungle  fowl  of  India  is  regarded  by  naturalists  as  the 
ancestral  type  of  our  domestic  chickens. 

OUTLINE  FOR  LESSON 

1.  Thoroughly  domesticated. — Do  not  return  to  a   wild 
state,  are  never  found  far  from  human  habitation.     Com- 
pare turkeys  and  guinea  fowls. 

2.  Food.  —  Almost   omnivorous ;    therefore    easily  kept. 
Find  their  food  on  the  farm  ;  almost  live  on  kitchen  scraps 
in  town. 

3.  Do  well  if  much  confined. — Need  but  a  small  grass 
plot  for  a  run.     Compare  turkeys  and  guinea  fowls. 

4.  Prolific  layers  and  breeders. 


118        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

5.  Live  in  flocks.  —  A  number  of  females  with  one  male. 
Compare  robins  and  other  wild  birds. 

6.  Chicks  able  to  run  about,  soon  after  they  have  emerged 
from  the  eggs,  can  see,  and  are  covered  with  a  soft .  down. 
Compare  the  young  of  robins,  sparrows,  and  swallows. 

7.  How  the  hen  protects  and  defends  them. 

8.  Compare  the  skull  of  the  chicken  with  the  skull  of  a 
cat  or  sheep.     Chicken's  bill  pointed  to  pick  up  seeds  and 
insects  ;  teeth  wanting ;  food  swallowed  whole. 

9.  Feet  and  wings.  —  Feet  strong,  fit  for  running,  walking, 
and  scratching ;  wings  little  used.     Compare  other  birds. 

See  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  41,  Fowls  :  Care  and  Feeding. 

§  49.   Ducks  and  Geese. 

MATERIAL  :  Pictures  of  ducks  and  geese  ;  bill  of  a  duck.  Previously 
observed  :  Walking,  flying,  swimming,  and  diving  of  ducks  and  geese. 

In  nearly  all  countries  of  the  world  there  are  different 
species  of  wild  ducks  and  geese.  Those  tame  ducks  and 
geese  which  were  brought  to  America  from  Europe  are  de- 
rived from  wild  species  of  that  continent.  Species  of  the 
duck  family,  to  which  the  geese  also  belong,  are  very  numer- 
ous in  our  country.  About  forty  have  been  distinguished  in 
the  United  States  and  Canada  east  of  the  Kocky  Mountains, 
and  many  a  country  boy  knows  half  a  dozen  different  kinds 
of  wild  ducks.  Some  of  these  wild  birds,  as  the  Canada 
Goose,  are  easily  tamed. 

OUTLINE  FOR  LESSON  ON  THE  DUCK 

1.  Is  slow  and  awkward  on  land.  —  Compare  with  chickens. 
Cannot  run  well,  cannot  scratch  in  the  soil  for  food. 

2.  Graceful  and  at  home  on  the  water.  —  Body  like  a  round- 
bottom  boat ;  feet   webbed,  used  as  paddles  and  rudders. 
Ducks  and  geese  have  an  oil  gland  near  the  tail,  take  the 
oil  with  their  bill  and  oil  their  feathers,  which  on  that  ac- 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS  119 

count  are  not  wetted  by  water.  They  shake  off  any  adher- 
ing drops  after  swimming,  and  are  dry.  Is  this  of  any  value 
to  them  ?  Do  chickens  get  wet  in  a  rain  ?  Do  they  like  it  ? 
Do  you  feel  warm  or  cold  when  your  clothing  gets  wet  ? 

3.  Dive  for  aquatic  animals  and  plants.  —  Bill   covered 
with  a  soft  skin  by  means  of  which  they  feel  about  in  the 
mud  for  their  food.     Horny  plates  on  bill  and  fringes  on 
tongue  form  a  sieve  to  let  the  water  run  out  and  retain  the 
prey  captured. 

4.  Ducklings  take  to  the  water  instinctively.  —  Have   you 
observed  how  amazed  and  worried  a  hen  is  when  her  sup- 
posed  chicks   suddenly  tumble   into  a   pond  ?     Hens   are 
often  set  on  duck  eggs. 

5.  Wild  ducks  and  geese  are  good  flyers.  —  Do  their  tame 
relatives  fly  well  ?     Why  not  ? 

6.  Wild  members  of  the  duck  family  migrate.  —  Recently 
tamed  birds  become  very  restless  in  fall  and    spring,  and 
often  leave  with  their  wild  friends,  unless  their  wings  are 
clipped.     Do  thoroughly  domesticated  birds  show  the  mi- 
grating instinct  ? 

7.  Show  how  ducks  and  geese  are  adapted  to  their  environ- 
ment and  to  the  life  they  lead. 

§  50.   Influence  of  Man  upon  Animals. 

MATERIAL  :  Pictures  of  different  breeds  of  domestic  animals  and,  as 
far  as  possible,  some  of  their  wild  relatives  or  ancestral  types. 

As  young  animals  generally  closely  resemble  their  parents, 
man  has  been  able  by  a  careful  selection  of  breeders  to  raise 
just  such  animals  as  he  desired.  We  have  to-day  very  large 
dogs  and  horses,  and  also  very  small  ones.  Shape,  color, 
and  intelligence  of  animals  can  also  be  influenced  by  breed- 
ing. Many  so-called  full-blooded  types  have  been  created 
by  man  within  the  last  one  or  two  hundred  years ;  a  few 
are  older,  but  some  are  much  younger. 


120         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

What  the  dog  had  to  learn,  and  how  Us  body  ivas  changed :  — 

1.  Was  originally  wild;  hunted  and  killed  animals   as 
wolves  do  to-day. 

2.  Has  become  used  to  man  and  obeys  his  word. 

3.  Hunting  dogs  have  learned  to  pursue  or  fetch  game 
without  eating  or  injuring  it. 

4.  Shepherd  dogs  take  care  of  sheep;  must   often   bite 
them,  but  do  not  seriously  injure  them  or  kill  them.     Do 
not  seize  them  by  the  throat  as  their  wild  ancestors  and 
relatives  did,  but  bite  them  in  the  legs. 

5.  Watchdogs  know  their  master's  family,  friends,  and 
property  ;  keep  off  thieves. 

6.  Most  dogs  differ  much  in  size,  shape,  and  color  from 
their  ancient  prototypes,  the  wolves  and  jackals. 

How  the  horse  changed,  and  what  he  learned :  — 

1.  Originally  roamed  wild  over  the  plains.     Wild  and  half- 
wild  horses  are  extremely  shy  and  wary. 

2.  Had  to  overcome  his  fear  of  man,  dogs,  etc. 

3.  Became  used  to  harness,  saddle,  and  bit. 

4.  Some  became  much  larger,  others  smaller  than  their 
wild  prototype ;  some  developed  great  strength,  others  great 
speed,  others  great  endurance. 

5.  Both  dog  and  horse,  but  especially  the  former,  have 
grown  in  intelligence. 

Changes  in  cattle :  — 

1.  No  longer  wild  and  ferocious. 

2.  Became  accustomed  to  the  yoke. 

3.  Will  give  their  milk  to  man. 

4.  Some  breeds  produce  much  more  milk  (Jerseys),  others 
much  more  beef  than  wild  cattle. 

CJianges  in  the  pig :  — 

1.   Has  lost  the  extreme  wildness  of  its  prototype. 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS  121 

2.  Snout  much  shorter,  body  more  round,  legs  shorter, 
fewer  and  shorter  bristles  than  the  wild  boar. 

3.  Produces  much  more  fat  and  meat. 
Traces  of  the  wild  state :  — 

1.  Some  easily  become  wild  again.     Horses,  cattle,  cats. 

2.  Males  of  wild  animals  are  very  pugnacious,  fight  fierce 
battles  with  each  other  for  possession  of  the  females.     Do- 
mestic animals  do  the  same,  if  they  have  an  opportunity. 

3.  Most  bulls  and  stallions  are  still  dangerous  brutes. 

4.  If  two  or   three  dogs  can  run  about  together,  their 
ancient  instinct  is  apt  to  revive ;  they  go  hunting,  kill  sheep, 
and  commit  other  mischief. 

NOTE.  —  Head  :  Shaler,  Domesticated  Animals. 

§  51.    Our  Duty  to  Animals. 

All  of  our  domestic  animals  are  derived  from  wild  forms.  — 
Some  of  the  wild  ancestral  forms  are  now  extinct.  Most 
of  our  animal  helpmates  were  tamed  so  long  ago  that  we 
know  little  or  nothing  of  that  important  process.  The  most 
recent  addition  to  the  list  is  our  American  turkey.  With- 
out the  help  of  large,  strong  animals  to  do  our  heavy  work,  and 
without  the  humbler  ones  who  furnish  food  and  clothing  for 
many,  many  millions  of  men,  we  could  not  have  attained 
our  present  state  of  civilization.  If  all  our  domestic  ani- 
mals should  disappear  suddenly,  most  of  us  would  proba- 
bly starve.  People  who  did  not  domesticate  wild  animals 
always  remained  savages. 

Kindness  to  animals.  —  As  we  owe  so  much  to  animals,  it 
seems  as  if  all  men  would  naturally  treat  the  dumb  creat- 
ures with  reason  and  kindness ;  but  to  our  shame  it  must 
be  admitted  that  many  a  brute's  master  is  far  more  brutish 
than  the  poor  beast  he  abuses.  If  an  animal  must  be 
killed,  nearly  everybody,  it  is  true,  does  it  in  a  manner 
which  is  quickest  and  least  painful  to  the  animal.  But 


122        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

often  a  man's  laziness  and  thoughtlessness  inflict  much 
suffering  upon  animals.  Horses  are  left  on  the  streets 
unblanketed  on  a  cold  winter  day  for  hours  at  a  time. 
Cattle  are  compelled  to  spend  the  nights  in  wet,  dirty 
yards ;  poultry  is  shut  up  in  foul-smelling  coops,  which  have 
not  been  cleaned  for  years,  and  are  full  of  vermin  besides. 
The  poor  hogs  are  occasionally  confined  in  sties  where  the 
mud  is  a  foot  deep.  All  our  animals  should  have  free 
access  to  reasonably  clean  water  unless  it  is  abundantly 
furnished  in  their  food.  A  part  of  the  foul  pond  water, 
which  a  cow  is  forced  to  drink,  man  drinks  with  that  cow's 
milk.  Animals  prefer  reasonably  clean  water,  but  do  not 
like  it  very  cold  ;  and  they  all  thrive  better  with  reasonably 
clean  housing. 

It  is  also  brutal  to  overwork  animals  without  a  very  good 
reason.  Driving  a  fire-horse  to  death  in  order  to  save 
human  life  and  valuable  property  may  be  justified;  but 
one  who  overworks  a  beast  without  such  good  reason  should 
be  put  behind  the  bars,  where  he  belongs. 


PART   SECOND 

I 

THE   TREES   OF   OUR   WOODS 

INTRODUCTION 

§  1.  Trees  add  much  beauty  to  our  farms,  to  cities  and 
parks ;  their  wood  is  of  much  use  to  us  for  fuel,  lumber, 
and  furniture ;  they  furnish  the  necessary  wind-breaks  on 
thousands  of  prairie  farms;  they  are  the  homes  of  the 
birds,  and  they  shelter  small  and  large  game;  and,  most 
important  of  all,  they  exercise  a  beneficial  influence  upon 
the  climate  of  the  whole  country.  For  these  reasons  they 
should  occupy  a  prominent  place  in  any  plan  of  Nature 
Study. 

The  plan  followed  here  suggests  that  the  trees,  common 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  school,  be  studied  three  times : 
First,  in  their  winter  condition,  when  the  characteristic 
modes  of  branching  and  the  forms  and  arrangement  of  buds 
can  be  best  observed ;  second,  when  they  are  in  bloom  ;  and 
third,  when  leaves  and  fruits  are  fully  developed.  The 
pupils  should  be  directed  to  observe  the  different  trees, 
shrubs,  and  vines,  from  very  early  spring  until  they  again 
appear  in  their  winter  condition.  Children,  as  well  as 
grown  people,  are  easily  interested  in  the  doings  of  animals 
and  plants  and  in  the  process  of  their  growth,  while  a  mere 
description  is  generally  of  interest  to  the  specialist  only. 

The  number  of  trees  native  to  the  forests  of  North 

123 


124         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

America  is  very  large,  much,  larger  than  the  number  of 
species  native  to  northern  Europe.  But  in  addition  to  our 
native  species,  many  European  trees  are  frequently  found 
planted  in  our  Eastern  States ;  so  that  it  is  often  quite  diffi- 
cult to  decide  which  species  of  tree  one  has  before  him, 
although  one  need  not  be  in  doubt  about  the  genus.  If  the 
teacher  is  in  doubt  about  the  species,  she  should  not  give 
a  specific  name,  but  should  simply  study  and  describe  the 
tree  as  an  elm  or  a  willow,  as  the  case  may  be ;  and  be  sure 
that  the  pupils  state  what  they  actually  see,  and  not  what, 
according  to  the  teacher's  book,  they  ought  to  see.  If,  for 
instance,  the  European  elm  or  the  slippery  elm  is  chosen 
instead  of  the  white  elm,  the  description  of  the  latter  must 
be-  changed  to  apply  to  the  tree  under  consideration.  In 
this  book  the  sixth  edition  of  Gray's  "  Manual "  is  followed 
in  the  nomenclature.  That  Latin  names  are  given  for  the 
benefit  of  teachers  only  goes  without  saying.  Gardeners, 
farmers,  and  woodmen  can  generally  identify  our  common 
trees.  However,  quite  frequently  they  apply  different 
common  names  to  the  same  tree ;  what  one  calls  a  red  oak, 
the  other  is  likely  to  call  a  black  oak. 

As  far  as  practicable,  trees  should  be  observed  in  the 
woods  as  well  as  in  open  places.  It  must  not  be  forgotten 
that  the  color  of  the  bark  and  twigs,  the  mode  of  branch- 
ing, the  shape  of  the  leaves,  and  especially  the  size  of  the 
tree  vary  somewhat  with  local  conditions.  Many  of  our 
common  trees  attain  their  largest  size  in  the  forests  of  Ohio, 
Indiana,  and  Kentucky,  decreasing  in  size  further  north  and 
west.  Trees  which  predominate  in  our  Northern  forests  are 
not  so  common  in  the  South.  Sometimes  they  grow  there 
only  on  the  mountains,  or  are  not  found  at  all. 

Let  the  children  observe  that  the  snow  still  remains  in 
the  woods,  in  groves,  and  under  brush,  after  it  has  disap- 
peared from  the  open  fields.  They  must  also  observe  that 


^N 

ERSITY  1 
THE   TREES   OF  OUR   WOODS  125 

VJV  H 


the  snow  is  not  blown  out  of  the  woods,  and  that  much 
snow  blown  into  them  is  also  retained.  Why  are  there  no 
high  snow  banks  in  large  woods  as  there  are  on  the  prairies 
and  open  fields  ?  Show  the  children  how  leaves  and  flowers 
in  the  bud  are  protected  by  scales  from  drying  up  and  from 
too  sudden  changes  of  temperature.  In  January  and  Febru- 
ary the  closely  packed  and  folded  leaves  and  flowers  in  the 
buds  contain  but  little  moisture,  and  are  not  at  all  injured  by 
a  steady  frost;  but  after  the  buds  have  opened,  the  young 
leaves  and  shoots  are  filled  with  sap,  and  a  late  spring  frost 
frequently  kills  every  leaf  and  shoot  in  whole  groves. 
Have  the  children  verify  these  statements  by  observations, 
and  in  the  same  manner  learn  and  teach  which  trees  are 
injured  most  by  late  spring  frosts.  Of  every  tree  studied 
preserve  winter  twigs,  flowering  branchlets,  and  full-grown 
leaves  in  the  school  herbarium.  Most  fruits  are  best  pre- 
served in  small  boxes.  They  should  be  left  on  their  pedun- 
cles or  stalks,  and  as  nearly  in  their  natural  condition  as 
is  possible. 

The  children  might  be  asked  to  plant  the  seeds  of  differ- 
ent trees  and  shrubs  on  small  plots  of  ground.  All  tree 
seeds,  except  poplars  and  willows,  which  need  but  very 
little  covering  of  moist  earth,  may  be  planted  about  an  inch 
deep,  in  good  garden  soil,  as  soon  as  they  begin  to  fall. 
You  will  find,  by  experiment,  that  some  begin  to  grow  at 
once,  others  remain  dormant  until  next  spring,  and  some 
do  not  germinate  before  the  second  spring.  The  seed  bed 
may  be  covered  in  fall  with  a  little  hay  or  straw,  to  prevent 
repeated  freezing  and  thawing.  The  germination  of  the 
seeds  and  the  growth  of  the  baby  trees  will  be  of  much 
interest  to  the  children.  Unless  you  have  noted  the  place 
of  the  different  seeds  with  marked  sticks,  you  will  not  at 
once  recognize  all  the  seedlings,  so  little  do  many  of  them 
look  like  their  giant  parents. 


126        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

In  the  lessons  which  follow,  only  a  few  trees  have  been 
described  at  length,  to  suggest  how  all  should  be  studied, 
Very  brief  descriptions  of  the  others  are  given  in  order  to 
gain  space,  but  the  language  of  these  outlines  should  not  be 
used  in  the  class-room. 

After  a  tree  has  been  studied  in  its  different  conditions, 
the  parts  of  its  annual  history  should  be  connected  into  a 
whole;  and  when  the  subject  of  trees  has  been  completed, 
different  pupils  might  write  out,  in  the  best  English  they 
command,  the  annual  history  or  the  life  history  of  different 
trees. 

The  following  books  would  be  helpful  in  the  description  and 
determination  of  trees  :  — 

K.  C.  Davis.  Key  to  the  Trees  of  Minnesota  in  their  Winter  Con- 
dition. 

Knobel.     Trees  and  Shrubs  of  New  England. 

NewhalL  The  Trees  of  Northeastern  America.  This  includes  some 
naturalized  species  and  all  the  native  trees  of  Canada  and  the 
northern  United  States  east  of  the  Mississippi.  The  last  two  books 
are  illustrated,  and  the  key  is  based  on  the  shape  of  the  leaves. 

If  you  have  access  to  a  public  library,  consult  Sargent,  Silva  of  North 
America,  the  American  classic  on  trees. 


II 

SOME    FOREST    TREES    IN    THEIR    WINTER 
CONDITION.     FEBRUARY   AND   MARCH 

§  2.  MATERIAL  :  Twigs  and  a  few  small  branches  from  every  tree 
to  be  studied.  From  a  wood  pile  or  from  a  dealer's  wood  yard  select 
pieces  of  wood  and  bark,  which  were  cut  from  trunks  or  large  branches. 
Before  these  lessons  are  given,  the  children  must  closely  observe  the 
shape  of  the  trees  in  the  woods  and  in  open  places.  If  practicable,  let 
them  accompany  and  assist  you  when  you  collect  the  material.  Out- 
door observations  are  of  the  utmost  importance  in  all  lessons  on  trees, 
because  the  full-grown  plants  cannot  be  brought  to  the  schoolroom. 
If  any  of  the  trees  described  below  are  rare  in  your  neighborhood, 
substitute  common  forms  for  them,  and  omit  those  of  which  you  can- 
not, at  least,  procure  branches,  twigs,  flowers,  leaves,  and  fruit.  Put 
twigs  of  all  trees  studied  in  glasses  or  bottles  with  water,  and  watch  the 
buds. 

The  Poplars 

1.  The  Quaking  Asp.     Populus  tremuloides. 

This  tree  generally  grows  from  thirty  to  fifty  feet  high 
and,  a  few  feet  above  the  ground,  the  trunk  has  a  diameter 
of  ten  to  eighteen  inches. 

Near  the  base,  the  bark  of  old  trees  is  often  black,  from 
one  to  two  inches  thick,  and  divided  into  broad,  flat  ridges. 
Higher  from  the  ground,  and  on  young  trees,  it  is  thinner, 
pale  yellow-green,  orange-green,  or  almost  white,  and  often 
marked  with  horizontal,  wart-like  excrescences.  The  lower 
side  of  large  branches  is  often  marked  with  large  black 
scars. 

Observations.  —  Keep  a  close  lookout  for  the  flowers  of  all  the  trees  you 
are  studying. 

127 


128        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

General  appearance.  —  The  stem  preserves  its  size  with 
little  diminution  in  diameter  for  thirty  feet  or  more.  At 
about  that  height,  slender  and  often  contorted  branches  are 
produced,  which  are  quite  remote  from  each  other.  With 
the  straggling,  somewhat  pendulous,  spray  into  which  they 
end,  they  form  a  narrow,  round-topped  head. 

TJie  branchlets  are  reddish-brown  and  lustrous  the  first 
year ;  in  the  second  year  they  are  greenish-gray ;  finally  they 
turn  dark  gray  and  nearly  all  are  very  much  roughened  by 
leaf-scars. 

The  dark  brown  buds  are  covered  with  a  fragrant  varnish, 
and  unless  already  partially  developed  they  are  about  one- 
fourth  of  an  inch  long  and  terminate  in  a  rather  hard  and 
sharp  point.  Under  each  bud  a  scar  is  distinctly  seen. 
These  scars  are  the  marks  left  by  the  falling  leaves  in 
autumn.  If  you  take  an  oak  twig  and  remove  the  still 
adhering  leaves,  fresh  leaf-scars  can  be  seen. 

Of  course,  now  we  desire  to  know  what  these  buds  con- 
tain ;  and  in  order  to  find  out,  we  shall  make  longitudinal 
sections  of  some  with  a  sharp  knife,  and  from  others  we 
shall  carefully  remove  the  brown  varnished  scales.  We  find 
in  some  large  buds  a  considerable  amount  of  soft,  fuzzy 
scales  and  a  green  body  which  looks  like  a  small  catkin.  In 
the  smaller  buds,  John  thinks  he  sees  tiny,  greenish  leaflets 
which  are  very  closely  packed.  I  am  not  quite  satisfied 
with  the  result  of  this  investigation,  and  think  that  our 
inquiries  may  be  answered  more  satisfactorily  if  we  examine 
the  buds  of  the  elder,  the  lilac,  and  the  alternate-leaved  cor- 
nel (Cornus  alter nif olid).  Now  we  need  no  longer  be  in 
doubt  about  the  contents  of  buds.  You  have  all  found  very 
small,  closed  flowers  in  some,  flowers  and  leaves  in  others, 
and  in  most  of  them  simply  leaves. 

Observations.  —  Note  the  appearance  of  the  following  birds,  and  con- 
tinue to  observe  them. 


FOREST  TREES  IN  THEIR  WINTER   CONDITION       129 

Range.  —  This  tree  has  the  largest  range  of  all  North 
American  trees.  If  we  could  make  a  long  fishing  and  hunt- 
ing trip  from  southern  Labrador  to  Hudson  Bay,  then  north- 
westward to  the  lower  course  of  the  Mackenzie  Biver  and 
from  there  to  the  mighty  Yukon  in  Alaska,  we  could  pitch 
our  tents  in  a  grove  of  quaking  asp  almost  every  night.  If 
from  Alaska  we  roamed  along  the  mountains  to  southern 
California  and  then  across  the  continent  through  northern 
Missouri  and  through  Pennsylvania  to  the  Atlantic  coast, 
we  should  have  made  a  trail  around  the  enormous  territory 
in  which  every  child  may  hear  the  whisper  of  the  aspen 
leaves. 

2.  From  the  following  list,  select  for  study  with  the 
children  the  tree  you  can  most  conveniently  observe. 

a.  The  Cottonwood.     Populus  monilifera. 

b.  The   Balsam  Poplar   or  Balm  of  Gilead.     Populus  baL 
samifera. 

c.  The  Lombardy  Poplar.     Populus  clilatata. 

The  latter  is  the  poplar  with  the  familiar  spiry  top.  It 
does  not  grow  wild  in  our  forests,  but  has  been  introduced 
from  Europe.  Any  farmer  can  point  out  the  Cottonwood 
and  Balsam  Poplar  to  you. 

The  following  topics  are  suggested :  — 

Size  and  shape. 

Bark  of  trunk  and  large  branches. 

Where  the  tree  grows. 

Branchlets. 

Buds. 

The  wood. 

Catbird,  brown  thrasher,  Baltimore  oriole,  rose-breasted  grosbeak,  chip- 
ping sparrow,  yellow  warbler,  red-eyed  vireo. 


130  HANDBOOK   OF  NATURE   STUDY 

The  Maples 

3.  The  Soft  Maple,  or  Silver  Maple.     Acer  dasycarpum. 

This  tree  grows  to  a  height  of  about  sixty  feet.  It  gen- 
erally divides  into  three  or  four  stout,  upright,  secondary 
stems  ten  to  fifteen  feet  from  the  ground.  These  secondary 
stems  are  destitute  of  large  branches,  but  bear  a  number  of 
brittle,  pendulous  branchlets. 

The  bark  of  old  trees  is  reddish-brown,  furrowed  and  sep- 
arated into  large,  thin  scales;  but  young  trees  and  large 
branches  have  a  smooth  gray  bark,  tinged  with  red. 

The  smooth  and  very  lustrous  branchlets  of  the  last  season 
are  bright  chestnut-brown  and  dotted  with  large,  pale  len- 
ticels. 

It  is  a  common  tree  along  river  banks.  In  the  West  it  is 
often  planted  for  shade,  and  if  placed  in  good,  moist  soil, 
grows  very  rapidly. 

The  rather  large  brown  flower  buds,  which  appear  in  thick 
clusters,  can  be  recognized  as  early  as  December. 

4.  The  Sugar  Maple,  or  Rock  Maple.      Acer  saccharmum. 

A  young  sugar  maple  growing  in  an  open  place  develops 
a  symmetrical  oval  top  of  stout  and  nearly  upright  branches. 
As  the  tree  grows  older,  its  branches  spread  gradually,  mak- 
ing a  broad,  round-topped  dome  from  fifty  to  seventy  feet 
across. 

In  the  forest,  where  many  trees  crowd  each  other,  sugar 
maples  often  rise  to  a  height  of  fifty  or  sixty  feet  with- 
out a  single  branch. 

The  bark  is  one-half  to  three-fourths  of  an  inch  thick, 
broken  into  deep  longitudinal  furrows,  separating  into  small 
scales  on  the  surface.  On  old  trees  it  appears  light  gray- 

Observations.  —  Preserve  some  piiie  flowers  in  alcohol. 


FOREST  TREES   IN  THEIR   WINTER   CONDITION      131 

brown  or  bluish-gray ;  on  young  trees  it  is  pale,  smooth  or 
only  slightly  fissured. 

The  branchlets  of  the  last  season  are  orange-brown,  marked 
with  numerous  pale  lenticels,  and  quite  lustrous. 

The  winter  buds  are  dull  brown,  not  covered  with  resin  or 
varnish,  and  along  the  sides  of  branchlets  you  will  always 
find  two  buds  opposite  each  other,  while  a  strong  bud  ter- 
minates each  branchlet. 

Compare  the  buds  of  maples  with  the  buds  of  poplars. 

The  sugar  maple  produces  the  most  valuable  wood  of  all 
the  maples.  It  is  used  much  for  flooring  and  inside  finish- 
ing, and  makes  excellent  fuel.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to 
state  that  this  is  the  tree  to  which  boys  and  girls  are  in- 
debted for  the  much-relished  maple  sugar.  Let  a  boy  who 
has  assisted  in  making  maple  sugar  or  maple  syrup  describe 
the  process  to  the  class. 

5.  The  White  Ash.     Fraxinus  Americana.  ' 

A  large  tree,  fifty  to  seventy  feet  high ;  with  stout,  up- 
right, spreading  branches,  forming  a  broad,  round-topped, 
pyramidal  head,  when  growing  free,  but  only  a  small,  nar- 
row crown  in  the  forest.  Bark,  dark  brown,  or  gray  tinged 
with  red,  separated  into  broad,  flat  ridges  by  deep,  narrow 
fissures.  Twigs,  gray,  stout,  two  opposite  each  other;  buds, 
rusty-brown  and  felty,  leaf-scars  semicircular. 

Habitat.  —  Rich  or  moist  wood. 

6.  The  Paper  Birch,  or  Canoe  Birch.     Betula  papyri/era. 

Tree  fifty  to  seventy  feet  high,  forming,  while  young,  a 
narrow,  pyramidal  head  of  short,  slender,  spreading  branches, 
with  long,  drooping  branchlets ;  old  trees  often  supporting 
a  round-topped,  airy  head  of  pendulous  branches. 

Bark  on  young  stems  and  large  limbs  creamy  white,  easily 
splitting  into  thin,  paper-like  layers,  of  which  the  inner 


132        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

ones  are  bright  orange;  much  broken  and  dark  near  the 
base  of  old  trees. 

Branchlets  dull  red  the  first  winter,  gradually  changing  to 
a  darker  orange-brown,  with  increased  lustre,  for  about  five 
years,  then  turning  white. 

Male  flower  catkins  form  in  summer  and  remain  on  the 
branchlets  until  spring. 

Habitat.  —  Rich  woods,  shores  of  lakes,  banks  of  streams. 

From  the  bark  of  this  tree  the  Indians  built  their  canoes. 

Read :  How  to  build  a  canoe,  in  The  Young  Voyagers,  by  Reid. 

7.  The  Ironwood  or  Hop-Hornbeam.     Ostrya  Virginica. 
This  is  a  small  tree,  usually  not  more  than  twenty  to 

thirty  feet  high.  In  its  summer  foliage  it  is  sometimes 
mistaken  for  a  young  elm.  In  its  winter  condition  it  is  eas- 
ily distinguished  from  the  elms  by  its  brown,  cylindrical 
flower  catkins,  which  appear  in  fall,  but  do  not  open  until 
spring. 

The  bark  is  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  thick  and  broken 
into  narrow,  light  brown  scales,  slightly  tinged  with  red  on 
the  surface.  The  buds,  fully  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long, 
seem  rather  large  for  the  slender  branchlets.  Both  buds 
and  branchlets  are  of  a  dull  brown  color  and  quite  smooth, 
but  scarcely  lustrous. 

The  wood  is  very  hard  and  heavy,  and  often  shows  a 
twisted  grain.  Let  the  boys  relate  their  experience  in  cut- 
ting and  splitting  it. 

8.  The  Wild  Hazelnut.     Corylus  Americana. 

Shrub,  three  to  ten  feet  high ;  bark  brownish-gray ;  form- 
ing copses  along  edges  of  woods,  along  fences,  and  wherever 
trees  and  shrubs  grow;  staminate  catkins  exposed  during 
winter.  Compare  the  catkins  of  birches,  alders,  hazel,  and 
ironwood. 


FOREST  TREES  IN  THEIR   WINTER  CONDITION      133 

9.  The  White  Elm.     Ulmus  Americana. 

This  is  one  of  our  most  beautiful  native  trees.  It  is  often 
from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  high,  and 
its  large,  spreading  branches,  with  slender,  drooping  branch- 
lets,  often  form  a  crown  a  hundred  feet  or  more  across. 
Sometimes  you  find  in  grainfields  magnificent,  solitary  elms 
with  a  beautiful,  symmetrical  crown  seventy  or  eighty  feet 
above  the  ground.  Do  you  think  that  the  farmer  pruned 
the  tree  of  its  lower  branches  and  thus  compelled  it  to  form 
that  grand  crown  which  you  can  see  at  a  distance  of  many 
miles  ? 

The  bark  of  the  white  elm  is  ashy  gray,  and  irregularly 
divided  by  deep  fissures  into  broad  ridges. 

The  branchlets  of  the  last  season  are  dark  brown  and 
minutely  hairy.  The  second  year  they  assume  a  grayish- 
brown  color  and  are  smooth  but  not  lustrous. 

The  buds  are  dark  brown  and  smooth.  Those  which  con- 
tain flowers  increase  in  size  very  early  in  the  season. 

The  Slippery  Elm,  Ulmus  fulva,  has  downy,  rust-brown 
buds ;  the  Corky  Elm,  Ulmus  racemosa,  also  has  downy 
buds,  but  its  young  branches  are  covered  with  a  rough,  corky 
bark. 

10.  The  Butternut,  or  Oilnut.     Juglans  cinerea. 

A  fine  tree  from  fifty  to  seventy-five  feet  high,  generally 
dividing  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  from  the  ground  into  numer- 
ous stout  limbs,  which  spread  horizontally  and  form  a  broad, 
symmetrical,  round-topped  head.  Bark,  strong-scented,  gray 
or  brown,  deeply  divided  into  broad,  flat  ridges.  Young 
trees  and  branches  smooth  and  light  gray.  Branchlets  stout, 
generally  dusky-green  the  first  year ;  slightly  hairy,  gradually 
becoming  gray;  leaf-scars  remaining  very  conspicuous  for 
several  years;  pith  of  the  twigs  light  to  dark  brown,  con- 
sisting of  transversely  arranged  plates;  buds  terminat- 


134        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

ing  brandies  fully  half  an  inch  long,  the  others  much 
smaller. 

Habitat  and  range. — E-ich  woods;  from  New  England  to 
the  mountains  of  Georgia ;  west  to  Minnesota,  Kansas,  and 
Arkansas. 

11.  The  Bitternut,  or  Swamp  Hickory.     Gary  a  amara. 
Tree  with  a  tall,  straight  trunk ;  fifty  to  seventy-five  feet 

high ;  with  stout,  spreading  limbs ;  and  slender,  stiff,  upright 
branches ;  forming  a  broad  head,  if  not  crowded.  Bark 
light  brown  to  light  gray,  broken  into  thin  scales.  Branch- 
lets  the  first  winter,  orange-brown,  lustrous,  with  large  leaf- 
scars,  ultimately  light  gray.  Terminal  buds  bright  yellow- 
green  and  large. 

Habitat  and  range.  —  Moist  soil ;  from  New  England  to 
Florida ;  west  to  Minnesota,  Nebraska,  and  Texas. 

12.  The  Bur  Oak,  Mossy-cup  Oak.     Quercus  macrocarpa. 
About  eighty  feet  high,  but  often  much  smaller.     Stout 

branches,  some  growing  nearly  at  right  angles  from  the 
stem,  forming  an  open  irregular  head,  when  the  tree  is 
young,  and  a  massive,  round-topped  crown  in  older  trees. 
In  the  forest  the  crown  is  much  narrower.  Bark  one  to  two 
inches  thick,  deeply  furrowed  and  broken  into  irregularly 
light  brown  or  gray  scales  on  the  surface.  The  branchlets 
are  stout  and  marked  with  pale  lenticels,  and  are  at  first 
covered  with  a  soft  felt.  When  they  are  from  two  to  four 
years  old,  thick,  corky  wings  frequently  begin  to  develop. 

13.  The  Scarlet  Oak.     Quercus  coccinea. 

A  tree  sometimes  seventy  feet  high,  but  usually  not  aver- 
aging more  than  thirty  feet,  with  comparatively  small 
branches,  which  generally  form  a  somewhat  narrow,  open 
head.  The  bark  of  the  trunk  is  almost  black  outside,  but 
red  internally,  and  is  divided  by  shallow  fissures  into  irregu- 


FOREST  TREES   IN  THEIR   WINTER   CONDITION       135 

iar  ridges.  The  branchlets  are  light  red  during  the  first 
winter,  and  change  later  into  light  or  dark  brown.  Young 
acorns,  about  the  size  of  a  small  pea,  can  be  found  on  the 
branchlets  in  winter.  These  acorns  mature  the  following 
summer. 

This  tree  has  the  most  beautiful  scarlet  foliage  in  autumn, 
which  changes  to  brown  in  winter,  many  of  the  leaves  re- 
maining on  the  tree  until  spring. 

14.  Hackberry,  Sugar  Berry.     Celtis  ocddentalis. 

Tree  about  twenty-five  to  forty  feet  high,  with  spreading, 
sometimes  pendulous  branches,  which  form  a  symmetrical, 
round-topped  head.  Bark  of  the  trunk  light  brown  or  sil- 
very gray,  very  much  broken  on  the  surface,  sometimes  with 
irregular,  wart-like  excrescences.  Branchlets  slightly  zig- 
zag, slender,  often  two  or  three  close  together  near  the  ends 
of  small  branches,  red-brown  and  marked  with  oblong  leaf- 
scars  the  first  winter,  gradually  becoming  dark  brown. 
Buds  ovate,  pointed,  flattened  by  the  pressure  of  the  stem. 

15.  The  Linden,  or  Basswood.     Tilia  Americana. 

Tree  about  forty  feet  high.  Bark  dark  brown,  much  fur- 
rowed, the  surface  broken  into  small,  thin  scales ;  inner  bark 
fibrous  and  very  tough.  Branches  slender,  often  pendulous. 
Twigs  at  first  greenish  or  reddish  brown,  but  soon  turning 
dark  gray.  Buds  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long,  and 
nearly  as  thick,  rich  red-brown  or  cherry,  glossy,  slightly 
mucilaginous. 

§  3.   Review  and  Summary. 

We  have  learned  that  all  of  our  native  trees,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  evergreens,  have  no  leaves  in  winter.  The  leaves, 
as  well  as  the  flowers  for  next  season,  are  contained  in  a 
rudimentary  state  in  the  buds,  which  are  protected  by  scales. 
These  scales  protect  the  tiny  leaves  and  flowers  against  sud- 


136        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

den  changes  in  temperature,  and  keep  rain  and  snow  from 
them.  Some  buds  are  naked,  others  covered  with  hairs,  others 
with  a  kind  of  varnish  or  resin.  Is  this  resin  soluble  in  water  ? 
Find  out  which  trees  have  two  buds  opposite  each  other,  and 
which  ones  have  them  arranged  alternately.  Some  trees 
have  a  bud  terminating  each  branchlet;  others,  like  the 
elms,  never  show  truly  terminal  buds.  Study  the  arrange- 
ment of  buds  on  different  trees,  and  verify  or  disprove  the 
statements  made  here.  Each  tree  has  its  peculiar  mode  of 
branching.  Could  you  classify  trees  according  to  the  soil 
and  locality  where  they  most  commonly  grow  ?  Where  do 
willows  and  poplars  generally  grow?  Where  would  you 
expect  to  find  maples  and  oaks  ? 

The  best  time  to  plant  trees  is  late  in  fall  and  early  in 
spring.  The  more  roots  can  be  left  on  the  tree,  the  more 
likely  it  is  to  grow.  The  branches  should  be  trimmed,  but 
should  not  be  cut  away  entirely.  Most  of  our  trees  can 
easily  be  raised  from  seeds  and  many  will  grow  from  cut- 
tings. You  should  try  all  these  different  ways  of  raising 
trees,  for  that  will  teach  you  much  which  you  cannot  learn 
in  school. 


Ill 

THE   WOODS   IN   BLOOM.     MARCH    TO   MAY 

§  4.  MATERIAL  :  Winter  twigs  and  flowering  twigs  of  all  the  trees 
to  be  studied.  Review  briefly  what  the  class  learned  about  the  flowers 
of  willows  and  poplars  last  spring. 

1.   Aspen  flowers. 

When  I  told  you  some  weeks  ago  that  you  should  look 
out  for  the  flowers  which  would  soon  appear  on  the  trees, 
some  of  you  thought  that  most  trees  had  no  flowers ;  but  this 
morning  Fred  brought  us  a  bundle  of  flowering  twigs,  which 
he  picked  from  a  tree.  Can  you  tell  me  on  which  tree  they 
grew  ?  You  are  right ;  they  grew  on  the  aspen.  As  we  have 
studied  many  flowers,  I  think  we  can  easily  make  out  the 
structure  of  these.  Fred  is  ready  to  describe  his  catkins : 
"  My  catkins  are  about  an  inch  and  a  half  or  two  inches 
long ;  from  a  distance  they  look  gray,  but  this  color  is  due 
to  many  little  scales  which  are  divided  into  several  lobes, 
fringed  with  soft  gray  hairs.  Among  the  scales  I  find  a 
large  number  of  little  scales,  on  each  of  which  from  six  to 
twelve  stamens  are  inserted,  and  each  of  the  stamens  carries 
an  anther  filled  with  pollen.  When  I  shook  the  poplar  tree, 
the  broken  anthers  discharged  their  pollen  like  a  mass  of 
dust."  Now  let  Annie  tell  us  about  her  catkins :  "  My 
catkins  are  also  provided  with  hairy  scales  and  little  discs, 
but  on  the  discs  I  find  small  conical  ovaries,  of  which  each 
carries  two  small  styles."  Fred  found  the  two  kinds  of 
catkins  on  different  trees,  and  he  asked  me  if  both  kinds 

Observations.  —  Continue  to  observe  the  birds  mentioned  previously. 

137 


138         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

would  produce  seeds.  We  will  all  watch  the  tassels  for  the 
next  two  or  three  weeks,  and  I  think  we  can  then  answer 
his  question.  I  think  you  will  find  that  the  staminate  ones 
will  soon  wither  and  fall  off. 

The  class  might  now  be  asked  to  compare  the  flowers  of 
some  other  poplar  with  those  of  the  aspen. 


FIG.  26.    SOFT  MAPLE. 
a,  fruit;  6,  leaves;  c,  flowers.    All  reduced. 


Observations.  —  Note  also  chipmunks,  red  and  gray  squirrels,  rabbits, 
and  other  small  mammals. 


THE   WOODS   IN  BLOOM  139 

2.  The  flowers  of  the  Soft  or  Silver  Maple. 

The  boys  found  some  more  tree  flowers  yesterday.  Do 
you  know  from  Avhat  tree  these  twigs  came  ?  As  you  have 
all  recognized  them  as  twigs  of  the  soft  maple,  let  us  see  if 
the  flowers  differ  much  from  poplar  flowers. 

Susan  finds  at  once  two  kinds  of  flowers ;  both  kinds  grow 
in  clusters  from  lateral  buds,  and  they  are  all  attached  to 
thin  filaments ;  but  one  kind  contains  a  bunch  of  dark  red 
anthers  carried  on  short  stamens,  while  the  other  kind  has 
two  small  wings  in  each  flower.  The  two  wings  are  styles, 
and  are  attached  to  the  ovaries  in  which  the  seeds  will  grow 
later.  We  look  in  vain  for  a  bright-colored  corolla  in  maple 
flowers,  but  you  can  easily  find  the  greenish-yellow  calyx 
below  the  stamens  and  also  below  the  ovaries.  You  re- 
member that  we  always  found  the  staminate  and  pistillate 
flowers  of  poplars  on  different  trees.  On  maples  the  two 
kinds  also  grow  generally  on  different  trees,  but  sometimes 
both  kinds  occur  on  the  same  tree.  Who  has  branches  that 
bear  both  kinds  of  flowers  ?  On  your  way  home  you  must 
look  for  bees  and  other  insects  on  maple  flowers,  and  try  to 
get  some  flowers  of  the  rock  or  sugar  maple  for  to-morrow. 

3.  TJie  flowers  of  the  White  Ash. 

The  boys  say  the  sugar  maple  has  no  flowers  yet,  but  they 
found  other  tree  flowers.  Do  you  know  these  twigs  ?  Minna 
is  right ;  they  are  twigs  of  the  white  ash.  Here  again  we 
find  two  kinds  of  flowers,  and  the  boys  tell  me  that  the 
staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  grew  on  separate  trees.  Do 
you  find  the  minute  calyx  below  the  stamens  and  the 
ovaries  ?  Who  will  describe  the  shape  and  color  of  the 
anthers  ?  What  is  the  color  of  the  pollen  ?  The  ovaries 
are  surmounted  by  long  styles,  which  have  each  two  dark 
purple  stigmas.  We  called  the  flowers  of  poplars  catkins ; 
loose  flowering  branches  like  these  are  called  panicles.  Are 


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you  not  surprised  that  the  large  trees  which  we  have  studied 
bear  such  small,  inconspicuous  flowers  ?  I  wonder  if  we 
shall  find  any  trees  with  large,  bright  flowers. 


FIG.  27.    WHITE  ASH. 

a,  twig  with  leaf  and  fruit;  b,  staminate  flowers;  c,  pistillate  flowers. 
All  reduced. 

4.    The  flowers  of  the  White  Elm. 

The  flowers  of  the  white  elm  are  perfect;  that  is,  each 
flower  contains  both  stamens  and  pistils.     They  appear  be- 


THE   WOODS   IN  BLOOM 


141 


fore  the  leaves,  from  buds  larger  than  the  leaf -buds.  Several 
flowers  are  attached  to  a  short,  common  stalk  by  long  pedi- 
cels. The  calyx  is  green  and  has  from  seven  to  nine  lobes, 
the  ovary  being  provided  with  two  green  styles,  stamens 


FIG.  28.    WHITE  ELM. 
A  twig  with  leaves  arid  fruit,  below  a  twig  with  flowers.    Both  reduced. 


protruding  from  the  calyx.     Watch  the  little  ovaries ;  they 
are  mature  fruits  when  the  leaves  have  unfolded. 

Did  the  maples,  poplars,  and  ashes  have  perfect  flowers  ? 


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HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 


5.    Tlie  flowers  of  the  Paper  Birch. 

The  staminate  catkins  are  produced  in  two  or  three  flow- 
ered clusters,  which  are  formed  in  the  fall.  They  are  from 
three  to  four  inches  long,  and  in  early  spring,  when  they 


FIG.  29.    PAPER  BIRCH. 
a,  twig  with  leaves  ;  6,  flowers  ;  c,  fruit.   '«  and  b  reduced. 


THE   WOODS   IN  BLOOM  143 

open,  they  shed  an  abundance  of  yellow  pollen.  The  pistil- 
late catkins  are  much  smaller  and  appear  in  the  spring ;  their 
scales  are  light  green,  the  styles  bright  red.  Both  kinds 
are  found  on  the  same  tree. 


FIG.  30.    IRONWOOD. 
A  twig  with  leaves  and  fruit,  below  a  staminate  catkin.    Reduced. 

6.    The  flowers  of  the  Ironwood. 

The  sterile  catkins  appear  in  the  fall,  one  to  three  together 
at  the  tip  of  short  branchlets.     They  are  about  two  inches 


144         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

in  length  when  they  open  in  spring.    The  loose,  fertile  catkins 
appear  in  spring  and  terminate  the  leafy  shoots  of  the  season. 

7.  TJie  flowers  of  the  Hazelnut. 

The  long,  slender  tassels  of  the  hazel  bush  are  among  the 
first  signs  of  spring.  The  sterile  catkins  appear  in  summer 
and  open  in  the  following  March  or  April,  shedding  yellow 
pollen  in  profusion.  Several  of  the  fertile  flowers  are  con- 
cealed in  one  scaly  bud;  each  ovary  bears  two  elongated, 
bright  red  stigmas,  which  are  easily  found  if  the  bushes  are 
looked  over  with  some  care. 

The  flowers  of  the  hazel  come  out  very  early.  Let  the 
pupils  look  for  them  when  the  poplar  catkins  are  opening. 
There  are  two  species  of  hazel  common  everywhere  from  the 
Atlantic  coast  to  the  Dakotas,  and  from  Canada  to  New 
Jersey,  —  the  common  wild  hazel  (C6rylus  Americana)  and 
the  beaked  hazelnut  (C6rylus  rostrata).  Both  form  extensive 
thickets  and  copses,  and  in  some  years  yield  a  rich  harvest 
of  sweet  nuts  for  boys  and  girls  as  well  as  for  squirrels  and 
chipmunks.  The  common  hazel  is  a  shrub  from  two  to  four 
feet  high,  the  nut  is  enclosed  in  two  leafy  bracts,  which  are 
open  when  the  nut  is  ripe  and  are  not  prolonged  into  a  beak. 
The  beaked  hazel  is  a  shrub  from  two  to  six  feet  high,  and 
has  the  nut  enclosed  in  several  united  bracts,  which  are 
prolonged  into  a  slender,  tubular  beak. 

8.  The  flowers  of  the  Rock  or  Sugar  Maple. 

The  flowers  of  this  maple  appear  with  the  leaves,  as  you 
see.  The  pedicels,  or  stalks  of  the  separate  flowers,  are  pro- 
duced in  bunches  of  long,  hairy  threads.  Find  the  calyx, 
the  stamens,  anthers,  and  the  ovary  with  its  styles.  The 
sterile  and  the  fertile  flowers  are  in  separate  clusters  on 
the  same  or  on  different  trees.  The  seeds  ripen  in  autumn. 
Compare  the  flowers  of  the  soft  maple,  and  if  your  time 
permits,  also  the  flowers  of  the  box  elder. 


THE   WOODS   IN  BLOOM  145 

9.    TJie  flowers  of  the  Butternut. 

Staminate  and  pistillate  flowers,  separate,  but  on  the  same 
tree,  appearing  when  the  leaves  have  attained  about  half 
their  full  growth;  staminate  flowers  in  catkins  three  to 


FIG.  31.    SUGAR  MAPLE. 

a,  twig  with  leaves  and  fruit;  b,  staminate  flowers;  c,  pistillate  flowers. 
All  reduced. 


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HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 


five  inches  long ;  fertile  flowers  six  to  eight  on  a  terminal 
shoot,  surrounded  by  bracts  covered  with  sticky  hairs ;  two 
bright  red,  spreading  stigmas  half  an  inch  long. 


FIG.  32.    BUTTERNUT. 

a,  pistillate  jflowers,-  b,  twig  with  leaf  and  fruit;  c,  staminate  flowers. 
All  reduced. 

Find  out  from  observations  whether  the  staminate  or  the 
pistillate  flowers  mature  first. 


THE   WOODS   IN  BLOOM  147 

10.    The  flowers  of  the  Bitternut,  or  Swamp  Hickory. 

Sterile  flowers  in  clustered  catkins;  fertile  flowers  two 
to  five  on  a  terminal  shoot ;  stigmas  green,  maturing  before 
the  staminate  flowers  open. 


FlG.  33.   BlTTERNUT,  OR  SWAMP  HlCKORY. 

a,  staminate  flowers ;  6,  pistillate  flowers ;  c,  twig  with  fruit  and  leaf. 
All  reduced. 


148         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

11.    The  flowers  of  the  Bur  Oak. 

Flowers  rather  late  in  May  or  early  in  June,  when  the 
leaves  are  about  one-third  full  grown;  sterile  flowers  in 
little  clusters  on  thread-like  catkins ;  fertile  flowers  on  slen- 
der stalks  from  leaf -axils ;  fruit  maturing  the  first  season. 


FIG.  34.    BUR  OAK.  —  a,  twig  with  leaves  and  young  acorns ;  6,  starainate 
flowers ;  c,  pistillate  flowers  in  the  leaf-axils.    All  reduced. 


THE   WOODS   IN  BLOOM 


149 


Oaks  which  mature  their  fruit  in  one  season  belong  to  the 
group  of  White  Oaks ;  those  on  which  the  acorns  remain  very 
small  the  first  summer  and  do  not  mature  before  the  second 
autumn  are  Black  Oaks.  Gray's  "  Manual "  describes  nine- 
teen species  of  oaks  from  the  northern  United  States  east 
of  the  Eocky  Mountains.  The  same  common  name  is  often 
applied  to  different  species. 

12.  The  flowers  of  the  Scarlet  Oak  resemble  closely 
those  of  the  bur  oak ;  but  the  pistillate  flowers  grow  in 
pairs  on  short  pedicels  from  the  leaf-axils,  and  small  acorns 
can  always  be  found  on  last  season's  wood,  which  shows  the 
tree  to  be  one  of  the  Black  Oaks. 


FIG.  3").    SCARLET  OAK.  —  a,  twig  with  leaves  and  young  acorns;  6, 
pistillate  flowers ;  c,  staininate  flowers.     All  reduced. 


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HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 


13.    Hackberry  flowers. 

Sterile  and  fertile  flowers  on  the  same  tree  ;  stamens  and 
greenish  calyx  lobes  five ;  ovary  provided  with  two  recurved 
stigmas;  flowers  appearing  in  early  spring  soon  after  the 
leaves. 


FIG.  36.    HACKBERRY. 
Twig  with  fruit  and  leaves,  red  uced ;  to  the  left,  a  flower  somewhat  enlarged. 

14.   Linden  flowers. 

The  stem  of  the  flower  cluster  is  attached  to  a  leafy 
bract  four  to  five  inches  long,  and  of  a  conspicuous,  whitish 
color.  The  flowers  are  much  sought  by  bees,  and  if  you 


THE   WOODS   IN  BLOOM  151 

look  carefully  you  can  see  minute  drops  of  honey  in  them. 
Do  you  find  calyx,  corolla,  stamens,  and  pistils  in  each 
flower  ?  Are  the  flowers  fragrant  ? 


FIG.  37.    LINDEN. 
Leaves,  young  fruit,  and  flowers.    Much  reduced. 

§  5.    Review  and  Summary. 

In  our  study  about  tree  flowers  we  learned  some  unex- 
pected things. 

Most  trees  flower  very  early  in  spring,  several  even  before 
the  leaves  appear.  Can  you  name  such  trees  now  ?  Most 


152        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

of  the  flowers  are  devoid  of  any  conspicuous  colors  and  of 
fragrance,  and  people  who  are  careless  observers  often  fail 
to  find  them,  or  to  recognize  the  flowers  as  such.  As  these 
inconspicuous  flowers  are  not  adapted  to  attract  insects,  of 
which,  moreover,  very  few  are  found  at  this  time,  they  must 
depend  on  the  wind  for  the  scattering  and  carrying  of  their 
pollen,  and  that  they  are  excellently  adapted  to  wind-ferti- 
lization we  must  at  once  acknowledge.  The  sterile  flowers, 
containing  the  pollen,  are  produced  in  enormous  numbers; 
the  pollen  is  fine  and  is  easily  shaken  from  the  long  hang- 
ing catkins  or  the  protruded  stamens.  If,  however,  the 
flowers  did  not  come  until  late  in  the  summer,  most  of  the 
pollen  would  fall  on  the  large  leaves,  and  the  chances  for 
its  reaching  the  stigmas  of  the  fertile  flowers  would  be  much 
reduced.  Study  the  foregoing  very  carefully,  and  determine 
for  yourself  by  observation  how  much  of  it  applies  to  the 
different  tree  flowers  which  you  have  studied.  Does  it  ap- 
ply to  the  linden  flowers  at  all  ?  Are  they  inconspicuous 
and  not  fragrant  ?  Are  they  visited  by  insects,  or  are  they 
wind-fertilized  ?  How  much  later  do  they  appear  than  the 
flowers  of  maples,  birches,  and  elms  ?  On  what  trees  and 
shrubs  did  you  find  most  old  birds'  nests  when  you  studied 
the  winter  conditions  of  trees?  Could  you  recognize  any 
of  the  nests  ?  Why  is  it  so  much  more  difficult  to  find  the 
new  nests  now  ? 

We  might  begin  at  once  now  and  study  the  fruits  and 
leaves  of  our  trees  also,  but  as  many  of  these  trees  do  not 
mature  their  fruit  until  next  fall,  we  will  leave  this  work 
until  then ;  but  we  must  all  carefully  watch  the  growth  of 
the  fruit  and  leaves.  However,  the  boys  tell  me  that  the 
poplars,  the  willows,  the  soft  maple,  and  the  elms  have 
large  fruits  now,  and  I  will  ask  you  to  bring  me  these  as 

Observations.  —  Preserve  some  pine  flowers  in  alcohol. 


THE   WOODS   IN  BLOOM  153 

soon  as  they  begin  to  drop.     Some  we  will  keep  for  next 
fall,  and  the  others  you  may  plant  and  watch  them  grow. 

NOTE.  — A  teacher  who  can  find  the  time  might  very  profitably  de- 
vote a  month  or  more  to  the  study  of  "  The  Flowers  of  Early  Spring." 
Some  of  the  following  common  flowers  are  suggested  for  such  work, 
but,  for  want  of  space,  a  description  cannot  be  given  here. 

1.  The  Skunk  Cabbage.     Our  earliest  flower. 

2.  The  Pasque  Flower.     Anemone  patens. 

3.  The  Marsh  Marigold,  or  Cowslip. 

4.  The  Rue  Anemone.     Anemonella  thalictroides. 

5.  The  Hepatica,  or  Liverleaf.     Hepatica  triloba. 

6.  Some  common  Violet. 

7.  The  Bellwort.     Uvularia  grandiftora. 

8.  The  Wild  Ginger.    Asarum  Canadense. 

9.  The  Jack-in-the-Pulpit. 

10.   The  Trillium,  or  Wake-robin. 

For  the  identification  of  common  and  conspicuous  flowers,  the 
teacher  might  consult :  Dana,  How  to  Know  the  Wild  Flowers.  The 
best  work  for  the  identification  of  plants  is  Britton  and  Brown ,  Illus- 
trated Flora,  published  by  Charles  Scribner's  Sons  ;  three  volumes. 
This  work  gives  accurate  figures  of  all  the  native  flowering  plants 
which  are  now  known  from  Virginia  to  Newfoundland  and  from  the 
Atlantic  coast  to  the  one  hundred  and  second  meridian. 


IV 

ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE    WOODS.      JUNE 
AND   JULY 

§  6.  A  morning  ramble  over  the  bedewed  meadows, 
through  the  shaded  woods,  or  along  the  sunny  beach  would 
not  be  half  as  enjoyable  if  the  bobolinks  were  silent,  squir- 
rels not  scolding,  catbirds  and  thrushes  not  singing,  wood- 
peckers not  hammering ;  and  if  the  stately  blue  heron,  the 
wary  duck,  the  swift-winged  snipes  and  gulls  had  not  taught 
us  to  watch  with  expectancy  every  clump  of  rushes  and 
every  concealed  nook  and  bay.  All  who  love  nature  cer- 
tainly regret  that  for  most  regions  of  our  country  the  days 
have  passed  when  the  farmer  boy  could  watch  as  many 
deer  slowly  drawing  out  of  the  thicket  as  he  can  now  find 
gray  squirrels  slyly  peeping  at  him  from  the  spreading 
boughs.  But  if  the  larger  animals  have  retreated  into  the 
unsettled  wilderness,  we  must  study  the  humbler  ones  that 
have  remained  with  us  so  much  more  carefully.  If  the 
large  game  animals  have  retreated  before  advancing  civ- 
ilization, our  common  song  birds  have  apparently  much 
increased  in  numbers  and  prefer  a  settled  country  to  the 
wilderness.  If  you  would  see  and  hear  many  of  the  winged 
singers,  you  must  not  look  for  them  in  the  depth  of  a  large 
forest,  but  in  orchards,  in  copses,  groves,  and  along  the 
edges  of  woods.  There  you  will  find  the  slate-colored  cat- 
birds ;  the  brown,  long-tailed  thrasher,  the  orioles,  the  rose- 
breasted  grosbeak,  and  many  of  the  small  warblers,  vireos, 
and  sparrows,  as  well  as  the  bright-colored  screaming  blue- 

154 


ANIMAL  LIFE  IN  THE   WOODS  155 

jay.  If  you  have  taken  your  rambles  in  the  woods  and 
fields  of  afternoons,  you  must  change  your  habits  and  start 
out  in  the  morning  at  about  sunrise  or  before  it,  and  you 
will  be  surprised  at  the  display  of  gay  plumage  with  which 
the  woods  are  alive;  while  your  ears  will  enjoy  the  music 
of  Nature's  orchestra  at  its  best.  Return  to  the  same  spot 
in  the  afternoon,  and  you  will  see  little  of  the  birds  and 
hear  less.  We  shall  now  study  a  few  of  the  birds  we  so 
frequently  meet  on  our  walks  and  rambles.  If  possible, 
good  pictures  or  mounted  birds  should  be  at  hand  to 
impress  shape  and  color  upon  the  children's  mind;  where 
this  material  cannot  be  had,  close  outdoor  observations 
must  suffice,  as  it  is  not  advisable  to  bring  freshly  killed 
song  birds  before  a  class  of  children.  We  shall  begin  our 
bird  studies  with  the  catbird,  which  is  as  common  in  gar- 
dens and  orchards  as  in  the  woods. 

NOTE.  —  Supply  the  time  for  the  spring  arrival  and  the  fall  depart- 
ure of  birds  from  your  own  observations.  The  time  given  in  the  text 
refers  to  central  Minnesota.  Cheap  and  good  colored  plates  of  our 
common  birds  and  of  many  foreign  birds  have  been  published  in 
the  magazine:  Birds,  Nature  Study  Publishing  Co.,  Fisher  Building, 
Chicago.  These  illustrations  are  perhaps  the  best  colored  plates 
accessible  to  common  schools.  A  common  opera-glass  is  a  great  help 
in  the  outdoor  study  of  birds. 

§  7.    The  Catbird. 

MATERIAL  :  As  suggested  above,  disinfected  nests  of  the  last  sea- 
son ;  insects  and  fruits  on  which  catbirds  feed.  Observed  outdoors : 
Nest-building,  song,  and  feeding  of  catbirds.  See  Farmers'  Bulletin, 
No.  54,  about  the  food  of  all  our  common  birds. 

Description.  —  Along  the  edges  of  woods,  in  bushes  near 
roads,  in  orchards  and  shrubbery  about  your  homes,  you 
often  saw  a  dark,  slate-colored  bird,  smaller  and  more  slen- 
der than  the  robin  and  more  graceful  in  his  movements. 

Observations.  —  Continue  to  observe  the  mammals  mentioned  previously. 


156         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

He  has  the  habit  of  flitting  from  bush  to  bush,  where  you 
cannot  easily  observe  him,  but  where  he  can  the  better 
observe  you.  If  you  come  too  near  his  nest,  he  utters  a 
long-drawn-out  zeay,  zeay,  which  has  sounded  to  some  peo- 
ple like  the  low  mew  of  a  cat  and  has  given  him  the  name 
catbird.  If  you  are  careful,  you  can  approach  him  close 
enough  to  distinguish  his  black  tail  and  crown  from  the 
dark  slate  back.  If  you  sit  down  and  observe  him  perched 
above  you,  you  can  see  that  he  is  dark  ashy  gray  below  and 
marked  with  a  distinct  rust-red  spot  under  the  tail. 

The  catbirds  arrive  in  the  last  week  of  April,  and  begin 
to  sing  and  build  their  nests  as  soon  as  the  days  become 
warm  and  spring-like.  Early,  before  sunrise,  perched  on 
a  sapling  or  concealed  in  a  thicket,  they  pour  forth  their 
melody,  which  I  shall  not  attempt  to  describe,  but  shall 
simply  ask  you  to  go  and  listen  to  it. 

The  nest  is  made  in  a  tangle  of  Virginia  creeper  or  wild 
grapevine,  or  in  some  thick  bush  seldom  more  than  six  or 
seven  feet  from  the  ground.  Let  us  see  what  the  catbird 
uses  for  house-building.  First  a  foundation  is  laid  of 
sticks  and  twigs,  and  on  this  the  bulky  nest  is  constructed 
of  straws,  leaves,  and  grass ;  the  inside  is  lined  with  hairs, 
fine  roots,  and  other  soft  material.  Soon  four  or  five  deep 
greenish-blue  eggs  are  laid,  and  then  incubation  begins. 
The  young  are  hatched  after  about  two  weeks,  and  from 
then  on,  until  they  are  able  to  take  care  of  themselves,  both 
of  the  old  birds  are  very  busy  to  procure  food  for  their 
hungry  little  ones  and  for  themselves. 

What  they  eat.  —  It  is  by  no  means  easy  in  most  cases  to 
know  just  what  a  bird  picks  up  on  the  field.  But  if  you  are 
sharp  and  fortunate  observers,  you  may  see  our  friend  glean 


Observations.  —  Watch  the  growth  of  Indian  corn,  wheat,  rye,  barley, 
potatoes. 


ANIMAL  LIFE   IN  THE   WOODS  157 

caterpillars  from  the  shrubs  and  trees,  or  he  will  catch  a 
grasshopper  or  a  cricket  on  the  meadow ;  weevils,  too,  and 
beetles,  and  thousand  legs  are  also  welcome  food  whenever 
he  can  catch  them. 

It  must  be  acknowledged  that  catbirds  do  some  fruit- 
stealing.  Like  boys  and  girls,  they  appreciate  all  kinds  of 
berries,  and  when  they  cannot  find  an  abundance  of  these 
growing  wild,  they  will  try  those  in  our  gardens,  where 
they  seem  to  prefer  mulberries  to  any  other  fruit.  As  we  are 
willing  to  pay  men  for  services  rendered  us,  why  should 
we  not  cheerfully  exchange  a  few  berries  for  a  swarm  of 
noxious  insects  and  a  grove  full  of  music  and  beauty  ? 

After  the  young  have  attained  the  power  of  flight,  cat- 
birds are  less  commonly  seen,  because  they  retreat  into  the 
woods  as  the  wild  berries  begin  to  ripen.  About  the  first 
of  October  they  generally  go  South  from  this  part  of  the 
country. 

Let  the  pupils  supply  the  dates  of  the  arrival  and  departure 
from  their  own  observations.  How  do  young  catbirds, 
robins,  and  blackbirds  differ  from  chicks  ? 

Children  must  not  visit  any  nest  while  the  birds  are 
brooding;  for  many  birds  will  forsake  their  nest  if  they 
have  been  disturbed  only  a  few  times.  That  no  boy  should 
make  a  collection  of  birds'  eggs  is  self-evident.  One  of  these 
boy  collectors  does  more  mischief  among  birds  than  a  dozen 
cats.  A  collection  of  typical  nests,  taken  after  the  young 
birds  have  left  them,  is  desirable  for  the  school ;  but  no 
collection  of  eggs  should  be  made,  because  that  would 
accomplish  little  good  and  do  a  great  deal  of  harm.  Pro- 
fessional ornithologists  and  public  museums  need  such  col- 
lections, but  boys  and  girls  and  common  schools  do  not 
need  them. 

Look  for  the  following  weeds : 


158         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

§  8.    The  Brown  Thrasher. 

Material  and  previous  observations  will  be  the  same  as  for  the  cat- 
bird. Most  of  the  following  lessons  on  birds  will  be  given  only  in  out- 
line, the  abbreviated  language  of  which  must  not  be  used  in  the  class. 

OUTLINE 

1.  Description.  —  Male    and    female    distinctly   reddish- 
brown  above,  wings  darker ;  below,  yellowish  white,  with 
brown  spots  on  breast  and  sides  ;  tail  very  long ;  bill  black, 
almost  awl-shaped,  like  that  of  the  catbird  and  the  robin ; 
bird  a  little  longer  than  the  robin ;  more  shy  than  catbird 
and  robin ;  female  paler  than  male. 

2.  Time  of  arrival  and  nest-building. 

3.  Nest  made  of  twigs,  pieces  of  vine,  grass,  rootlets ;  in 
low  bushes  on  the  ground.     Use  an  old  nest  to  illustrate. 

4.  Song.  —  Describe  from  observation,  if  you  can.     Is  it 
superior  to  the  catbird's  and  the  robin's  ? 

5.  Food.  —  Principally  worms,  caterpillars,  grasshoppers, 
crickets,  beetles,  and  bugs ;  cultivated  fruit  only  about  eight 
per  cent  of  the  whole ;  a  little  grain ;  wild  cherries,  elder 
berries,  and  other  wild  fruit.     The  above  list  shows  the  bird 
to  be  decidedly  useful,  and  it  should  be  rigorously  protected. 
Much  of  its  insect  food  is  gathered  in  brush  along  fences, 
the  favorite  hibernating  place  for  injurious  insects. 

6.  Time  of  fall  migration. 

§  9.   The  Baltimore  Oriole. 

Material  and  previous  observations  as  suggested  under  catbird  and 
brown  thrasher. 

OUTLINE 

1.  Description.  —  Considerably  smaller  than  the  robin. 
Male :  Head,  throat,  upper  half  of  back,  and  wings,  black. 
Below,  bright  orange ;  also  orange  spots  on  wings  and  tail. 
Female  :  Dark  olive  above,  dull  orange  below. 

Observations.  —  Wild  mustard,  pigeon  grass,  yellow  foxtail  grass,  wild 
oats,  common  milkweed. 


ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE    WOODS 


159 


2.  They  arrive  in  this  region  about  the  middle  of  May, 
and  begin  nest-building  a  week  or  two  later. 

3.  Nest.  —  A  perfect  pocket,  woven  out  of  milkweed  fibres, 
strings,  threads,  cotton,  and  similar  material ;    suspended 
near  the  end  of  a  long,  swaying  branch,  from  twenty  to 
thirty  feet  from  the  ground.     An  oriole's  nest  is  one  of  the 
wonders  of  bird  architecture;   give  every  child  an  oppor- 


FIG.  38.    BALTIMORE  ORIOLE. 

timity  to  examine  it  carefully.  Can  you  identify  a  bird's 
nest  without  seeing  the  bird?  Have  you  ever  watched  a 
pair  building  their  nest  ? 

4.  Song.  —  Rendered  in  words  by  Mrs.  Wright  as  "  Will 
you  ?  Will  you  really,  really,  truly  ?  "  Female  does  not  sing. 

.5.  Food.  —  Worms,  caterpillars,  grasshoppers  and  other 
injurious  insects,  and  some  fruit.  By  means  of  its  food, 
beautiful  color,  and  song,  one  of  our  most  beneficial  birds. 

6.  The  parent  birds  are  very  much   attached   to   their 
home  and  young,  and  bravely  defend  them  against  cl\ip- 
munks,  squirrels,  and  predaceous  birds. 

7.  They  leave,  at  St.  Paul,  about  the  first  of  September. 


160 


HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 


§  10.    The  Rose-breasted  Grosbeak. 
Material  and  observations  as  above. 

1.  Appear  about  the  first  week  of  May ;  build  their  nests 
the  latter  part  of  May  or  the  first  part  of  June. 

2.  Description.  —  Male  :    Breast   a  conspicuous   rose-car- 
mine, which  extends  under  the  wings.     Lower  side,  rump, 
some  tail  feathers,  and  two  spots  on  wings,  white.     Female : 


FIG.  39.    ROSE-BREASTED  GROSBEAK. 

Brownish,  yellowish  under  the  wings,  no  carmine  breast, 
very  thick  bill. 

3.  Nest.  —  A  perfect  circle,  composed  of  bits  of  vines, 
small  sticks,  roots,  grasses,  fibres,  and  other  material,  lined 
inside  with  similar  but  finer  material ;  placed  on  a  small 
tree  or  a  bush  from  five  to  ten  feet  from  the  ground. 

4.  Song.  —  About  the  finest  of  our  native  birds  in  this 
region ;   a  delightful,  rolling   warble,  often  heard  towards 
evening,  but  not  rare  at  any  time  of  the  day,  except  about 
noon. 


ANIMAL  LIFE   IN  THE   WOODS  161 

5.  The  stout,  cone-shaped  bill  shows  that  the  bird  is  a  seed- 
eater,  but  it  includes  a  large  number  and  variety  of  injurious 
insects  in  its  diet,  and  is  the  only  bird  that  eats  the  potato 
beetles  in  any  large  number.     Cases  have  been  observed 
where  a  family  of  grosbeaks  ate  every  beetle  that  could  be 
found  in  a  small  field.     The  bird  is  therefore  one  of  the 
most  useful  to  farmers,  and  should  be  protected  everywhere. 
If  the  writer's  observations  are  trustworthy,  the  bird  has 
lately  increased  very  much  in  this  part  of  Minnesota.     In 
the  spring  of  1897,  dozens  of  them  could  be  seen  on  one 
day. 

6.  They  cease  to  sing  about  the  middle  of  August,  and 
go  South  about  the  middle  of  September. 

§11.    Our  Wee  Birds. 

Before  taking  leave  of  our  feathered  friends,  we  must,  at 
least,  spend  a  few  hours  in  the  bushes  with  the  little  folks 
of  bird-dom.  In  the  garden  shrubbery,  in  the  willow 
thickets  lining  the  prairie  stream,  and  wherever  boughs  and 
bushes  sway  to  the  summer  zephyrs,  you  will  hear,  often  also, 
see  them,  but  only  when  they  make  no  effort  to  conceal 
themselves.  You  may  hear  the  red-eyed  vireo  sing  in  the 
grove  all  morning,  but  as  soon  as  you  come  near  the  spot 
whence  the  sweet,  soft  music  sounded,  the  song  emanates 
from  another  part  of  the  grove.  Most  of  these  small  birds 
belong  to  one  of  the  following  four  families :  Sparrows, 
Finches,  Warblers,  Vireos.  The  first  are  about  the  size  of 
the  house  sparrow,  their  strong  bills  are  cone-shaped,  and 
grayish  and  brownish  tints  are  their  predominating  colors ; 
they  are  really  seed-eaters,  but  feed  their  young  on  insects. 
The  finches  are  represented  by  the  pretty  black  and  yellow 
American  goldfinch,  which  will  be  described  below.  The 
warblers  are  among  the  smallest  of  our  birds ;  most  of  them 
are  brightly  colored,  have  a  sweet  lisping  song,  but  are  so 


162        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

elusive  in  their  habits  that  only  a  few  are  generally  known. 
Their  slender  bills  indicate  that  they  live  on  insects; 
the  Yellow  Warbler,  often  called  Wild  Canary,  is  one  of  the 
most  easily  recognized  warblers.  The  vireos  resemble  the 
warblers  in  habits,  size,  and  plumage,  but  are  much  their 
superiors  in  musical  ability.  Nests  of  the  four  birds  de- 
scribed below  must  be  shown,  and  the  birds  must  have  been 
observed. 

§  12.  The  Chipping  Sparrow.  Spizella  socialis.  (Hairbird, 
Chippie.) 

Here  I  have  a  nest,  which  is  one  of  the  prettiest  I  found 
last  fall.  It  was  fastened  to  the  branch  of  an  evergreen  by 
means  of  a  few  cotton  threads ;  it  is  made  of  grass  and 
completely  lined  with  horsehair,  by  which  you  can  always 
identify  the  bird. 

Who  knows  the  little  birds  that  built  it  ?  They  wore  a 
dark  chestnut  cap  and  had  a  gray  stripe  over  the  eyes. 
Their  back  was  dark  brown  and  striped,  the  under  parts 
were  gray,  and  they  had  a  black  bill  and  light  feet.  From 
their  call  note,  chip-chip,  they  are  called  Chipping  Sparrows. 
They  seem  to  love  the  company  of  men,  and  often  build  in 
bushes  and  in  small  and  large  trees  near  houses.  The  young 
chippies  are  restless  babies ;  frequently  they  tumble  out  of 
the  nest  before  they  can  fly,  and  then  the  parents  feed  the 
fluttering  little  ones  on  the  ground.  Last  summer  I  saw  a 
parent  deliberately  lead  a  young  bird,  which  could  not  yet 
fly,  from  an  open  place  to  a  corner,  where  some  brush,  tall 
grass,  and  corn  offered  shelter  against  the  sun  and  the  cats. 

§  13.    The  American  Goldfinch.     Spinus  tristis. 

To-day  I  have  brought  another  pretty  nest.  You  see  at 
once  that  a  small  bird  built  it.  I  took  it  late  last  fall  from 
a  young  box-elder  crutch  nea,r  the  sidewalk  ;  the  young  birds 
had  not  left  it  before  the  last  week  in  August.  -Do  you 


ANIMAL  LIFE   IN   THE   WOODS  163 

know  of  birds  that  breed  so  late  ?  Let  me  see  if  any  of 
you  can  recognize  the  little  architects  from  my  description. 
One  of  the  birds,  the  male,  wore  a  tiny  black  cap ;  its  wings 
and  tail  were  also  black,  marked  with  a  little  white ;  the 
rest  of  the  body  is  of  a  clear,  beautiful  yellow.  If  you  had 
not  already  learned  something  about  the  scarlet  tanager  and 
the  rose-breasted  grosbeak,  you  might  be  surprised  that  this 
bright-colored  little  bird  has  a  mate  whose  attire  consists  of 
a  very  modest,  brownish-olive  above  and  a  pale  yellow  be- 
low. How  many  of  you  know  the  bird  I  described  ?  It  is 
called  the  American  Goldfinch.  Do  you  not  think  that  it 
has  received  a  very  appropriate  name  ? 

How  many  of  you  have  seen  the  goldfinch  late  in  fall  ? 
Although  none  of  you  have  seen  them,  they  are  with  us 
until  November  and  some  remain  all  winter.  But  in  Sep- 
tember the  male  doffs  his  black  cap,  his  bright  colors  fade, 
and  soon  he  looks  just  like  his  mate  and  the  young  of  the 
season.  If  you  are  close  observers,  you  may  even  then  rec- 
ognize it  by  its  peculiar  dipping  flight.  The  birds  return 
to  us  in  March  or  early  April,  but  the  spring  moult  is  not 
completed  before  the  latter  part  of  May,  and  before  that 
time  you  are  not  likely  to  observe  the  bright  yellow  and  the 
distinct  black  of  their  plumage.  Have  you  learned  about 
another  bird  which  shows  such  a  marked  change  in  color  ? 

Now  let  us  study  this  pretty  little  nest.  How  trim  and 
small  it  is,  and  still,  how  strong  and  how  securely  placed 
on  its  support.  The  outside  they  made  of  grass  and  moss ; 
but  this  material  was  evidently  not  considered  soft  and 
warm  enough  for  the  little  baby  finches,  and  the  parents 
therefore  lined  the  nest  with  fine  down  and  wool.  Do  all 
birds  of  the  same  species  build  their  nests  just  alike,  or  are 
they  governed  to  some  extent  by  circumstances  and  by  the 
material  which  they  can  most  easily  procure  ?  I  wonder 
where  the  Chimney  Swifts  built  their  nest,  before  this 


164         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

country  was  settled  by  white  people.  Now  they  nest  almost 
exclusively  in  chimneys ;  however,  occasionally  their  nests 
are  found  in  hollow  trees ;  still,  they  seem  to  like  a  chimney 
very  much  better.  Can  you  discover  a  probable  reason  for 
this? 

The  song  of  the  goldfinch  is  a  wild,  canary-like  warble ; 
its  call  note  is  ker-chee-chee-chee,  whew-e,  whew-e. 

§  14.    The  Yellow  Warbler.     Dendroica  cestiva. 

This  little  bird  looks  very  much  like  a  tame  canary ;  the 
male  is  yellow  all  over,  but  brighter  below  than  above,  while 
the  female  is  of  a  darker  color. 

The  nest  may  be  found  in  the  garden,  field,  swamp,  or 
forest.  It  is  one  of  the  prettiest  structures  built  by  the 
skilful  little  feet  and  bills  of  birds.  Take  a  stroll  in  late 
May  through  the  brush  adjoining  fields  and  meadows;  soon 
you  will  flush  the  golden  bird  of  summer ;  then  carefully 
search  the  brush  and  you  will  find  a  perfect  baby  bird's 
cradle  firmly  lashed  to  the  twigs  in  the  fork  of  a  shrub, 
about  four  or  five  feet  from  the  ground. 

Procure  several  old  nests,  and  find  out  for  yourself  how 
the  nest  is  constructed  and  what  material  the  yellow  warbler 
uses.  Do  you  think  that  he  is  influenced  to  any  extent  by 
circumstances  and  locality  ?  The  song  of  this  bright  bird, 
as  is  the  case  with  all  warblers,  is  very  feeble;  it  sounds 
like,  sweet-sweet-sweet-sweet-sweet-sweeter-sweeter. 

You  may  find  in  the  nests  of  warblers  and  other  small 
birds  two  kinds  of  eggs.  The  larger  egg,  nearly  an  inch 
long,  whitish,  and  speckled  with  brown  and  various  shades 
of  gray,  is  a  cowbird's  egg,  which  you  should  take  out  and 
destroy.  The  cowbird  is  commonly  seen  in  pastures,  follow- 
ing the  cattle.  The  male  is  of  a  glistening  black,  but  has  a 
dark  brown  head  and  throat ;  the  plumage  of  the  female  is 
of  a  dull,  brownish  gray.  Cowbirds  build  no  nests,  but  lay 


ANIMAL  LIFE  IN  THE   WOODS  165 

their  eggs  in  the  nests  of  other  and  generally  smaller  birds, 
whose  young  then  have  to  starve,  because  the  stronger  cow- 
bird  does  not  let  them  have  any  of  the  food  brought  by 
their  parents.  Cowbirds  are  often  called  blackbirds  by 
farmers ;  their  call  note  is,  clucksee  ! 

§  15.    The  Red-eyed  Vireo.     Vireo  olivaceus. 

This  bird  is  a  little  larger  than  the  yellow  warbler  and 
the  American  goldfinch.  Unless  you  come  very  close  to  it, 
you  will  see  none  but  plain  shades  of  brown  and  gray  on  its 
plumage,  — .colors  which  predominate  on  hundreds  of  our 
small  birds.  You  cannot  fail  to  identify  it  by  its  song, 
which  is  superior  to  that  of  other  birds  of  its  size.  In 
almost  every  grove  in  the  city,  as  well  as  in  the  country, 
its  song  is  heard  from  early  morning  until  the  evening  twi- 
light. Wilson  Flagg  calls  him  the  Preacher.  "  You  see  it 
—  you  know  it.  Do  you  hear  me?  Do  you  believe  it?" 
he  hears  the  vireo  say  in  an  emphatic  staccato.  If  you 
remember  these  words,  you  will  recognize  the  bird  every 
time  you  hear  it.  Its  red  eyes  and  the  pensile  nest  will 
also  help  you  to  pick  it  from  its  many  gray  and  brown 
coated  neighbors. 

The  nest  closely  resembles  a  small  cup.  It  is  always 
typically  pensile  from  a  slender,  forked  branch,  and  may  be 
looked  for  from  three  to  twenty-five  feet  from  the  ground. 
It  is  made  of  different  bark  fibres,  bits  of  paper,  pieces  of 
wasps'  nests,  vegetable  down,  and  similar  material.  The 
three  to  five  eggs  are  white,  marked  with  brown  spots  on 
the  larger  end. 

§  16.    Closing  Remarks  on  Birds. 

We  have  had  many  occasions  to  observe  that  most  of  our 
common  song  birds  are  the  best  friends  of  farmers  and 
gardeners,  and  of  all.  persons  who  are  interested  in  the 
preservation  of  shade  trees  and  shrubbery. 


166        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

To  form  an  idea  how  many  insects  are  destroyed  by  birds, 
you  must  watch  a  pair  feeding  their  young.  You  will  find 
that  for  hours  caterpillars,  grasshoppers,  and  other  insects 
are  brought  to  the  nest  at  intervals  of  only  a  few  minutes. 
From  such  observations  you  can  calculate  approximately 
the  number  of  grasshoppers,  for  instance,  which  a  brood 
of  robins  would  eat  in  two  weeks  or  during  the  whole 
summer.  Let  several  of  the  children  make  such  observa- 
tions, and  let  the  class  know  the  results. 

Birds,  however,  are  our  friends  in  more  than  one  way. 
By  their  song  and  beautiful  plumage,  they  contribute  much 
to  our  happiness  and  cheerfulness.  They  are  inseparably 
connected  with  bright  flowers  and  green  woods,  with  cool 
shade  and  mellow  sunshine.  They  add  beauty  and  poetry 
to  life,  and  every  child  loves  them  as  naturally  as  he  loves 
the  flowers.  But  if  you  would  attract  them  to  your  home, 
you  must  plant  some  trees  and  shrubs,  and  must  allow  some 
wild  vines  and  bushes  to  grow.  Most  birds  prefer  small 
woods,  copses,  and  groves  to  large,  dense  forests.  In  large 
forests  birds  are  numerous  only  around  the  edges  and  near 
other  openings.  Since  our  country  became  settled,  the 
common  song  birds  have  multiplied  considerably,  because 
the  number  of  their  natural  enemies,  as  foxes,  minks,  wild- 
cats, etc.,  has  been  much  reduced,  and  because  thousands  of 
groves  in  the  prairie  states  now  provide  almost  ideal  homes 
for  the  birds,  where  formerly  they  found  no  resting-place. 

Pupils  and  teachers  who  would  like  to  learn  more  about  our  birds 
than  space  permits  us  here  are  referred  to  Birdcraft,  by  Mabel  O. 
Wright,  which  will  enable  you  to  recognize  about  two  hundred  birds. 
A  Year  with  the  Birds,  by  Wilson  Flagg,  forms  interesting  reading 
on  birds. 

A  systematic  review  of  the  birds  thus  far  studied  might  properly 
follow  these  lessons  ;  but  as  the  material  for  this  review  can  be  pro- 
cured at  any  time,  the  chapter  is  given  later,  when  material  for  other 
lessons  cannot  be  procured. 


ANIMAL  LIFE   IN  THE   WOODS  167 

§  17.   Mammals  in  and  about  the  Woods. 

The  trees  and  the  underbrush  are  not  the  home  of  many 
birds  only.  If  we  look  closely  on  the  green  foliage,  in  the 
flowers,  in  the  dead  trunks  and  stumps,  and  under  the  half- 
decayed  leaves  on  the  ground,  we  find  so  many  insects  and 
other  small  animals  that  it  would  require  a  lifetime  to  study 
the  life  history  and  the  habits  of  all.  But  let  us  now  turn 
our  attention  to  some  of  the  larger  animals  which  still 
inhabit  the  woods,  together  with,  the  birds.  Several  times, 
in  our  rambles,  we  saw  a  brisk  little  animal,  which  in  shape 
resembled  a  squirrel,  but  was  smaller  than  the  Red  Squirrel. 
All  of  you  who  have  seen  the  little  chatterbox  know  that  I 
refer  to  the  Chipmunk.  On  sunny  days  in  fall,  when  the 
nuts  are  ripe,  and  when  the  leaves  begin  to  change  to  a 
warm  red  or  to  a  bright  yellow,  I  have  frequently  observed 
the  Red  and  the  Gray  Squirrels  busily  gathering  nuts  for 
their  winter  supply.  If  you  tread  softly,  and  if  your  ears 
are  keen,  you  may  hear  " Brer  Rabbit"  rustle  through  the 
dry  leaves,  and  see  his  cotton  tail  disappear  in  the  brush. 
These  animals  we  shall  study  now ;  and  we  will  begin  with 
the  smallest  of  them,  with  the  sprightly  and  ever-active 
chipmunk. 

§  18.    The  Chipmunk.     Tamias  striatus. 

MATERIAL  :  Picture  of  the  chipmunk  ;  a  clean  skull ;  nuts,  acorns, 
grain,  and  other  seeds,  on  which  it  feeds.  Life  and  habits  previously 
observed  outdoors. 

The  chipmunk  looks  like  a  small  squirrel ;  and  as  it  is 
more  commonly  seen  on  the  ground  than  on  trees,  it  is  also 
called  ground  squirrel.  Its  general  color  is  reddish-brown  ; 
along  the  back  run  five  black  and  two  whitish  stripes. 

Although  the  chipmunk  has  no  hands,  still  it  can  build 

Observations. — Note  the  flowers  of  Indian  corn,  small  grain,  potatoes, 
and  other  cultivated  plants. 


168        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

itself  a  home,  which  you  will  generally  find  near  fences  or 
dead  stumps  and  trunks,  or  under  a  pile  of  brush.  But  as 
the  chipmunk  is  too  weak  to  defend  himself  against  his 
many  enemies,  he  has  learned  to  dig  into  the  ground  with 
his  feet  and  make  himself  a  snug  little  cave,  where  he  is 
protected  against  the  cold  of  winter  and  also  from  most 
of  his  enemies. 

There  are  generally  two  entrances  to  the  nest,  and  you 
will  soon  understand  why  the  chipmunk  should  prefer  two 
doors  to  one.  The  nest  is  very  well  described  by  Charles  C. 
Abbott,1  whose  words  are  here  quoted,  with  sojne  omissions : 
"  The  two  entrances  were  at  the  foot  of  a  large  beech  tree. 
A  little  grass  only  grew  about  the  tree,  and  the  holes  at  the 
surface  of  the  ground  were  very  conspicuous.  No  attempt 
at  concealment  had  been  made ;  but  this  was  evidently 
because  there  were  here,  at  this  time,  but  few  of  their  many 
enemies.  The  right-hand  entrance  to  the  nest  proper  was 
nine  feet  distant  from  the  opening  at  the  foot  of  the  tree ; 
but  as  the  passage  had  a  somewhat  tortuous  course,  the 
tunnel  was  really  about  twelve  feet  long.  The  nest  proper 
was  about  twenty  inches  in  length,  and  perhaps  a  foot  in 
height.  It  was  lined  with  fine  grass.  I  had  hoped  to  find 
more  than  two  passages  to  the  nest  and  extra  cavities  or 
granaries,  but  there  were  no  traces  of  them.  These  supple- 
mentary burrowings,  or  '  storehouses,'  I  believe  now  are 
made  quite  late  in  the  summer,  and  are  additions  to  their 
main  burrows,  made  when  it  becomes  necessary  for  them  to 
commence  storing  up  their  winter  supply  of  food." 


Observations. — Flowers  of  wild  mustard,  milkweed,  and  other  common 
field  weeds. 


1  This  and  other  quotations  from  the  same  author  are  taken  from 
Charles  C.  Abbott's  Rambles  of  a  Naturalist  about  Home,  by  per- 
mission of  the  publishers,  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York. 


ANIMAL   LIFE   IN  THE   WOODS  169 

"  Chip  "  has  many  enemies,  still  his  life  seems  to  be  a  happy 
one.  The  farmer's  cat  catches  many  a  chipmunk  and 
gopher,  when  she  has  to  provide  for  a  family  of  hungry 
kittens ;  the  weasel  stalks  him  through  the  brash,  follows 
him  up  into  the  trees,  and  even  pursues  him  into  his  bur- 
rows. Hawks  and  owls  pounce  upon  him,  while  he  scampers 
along  the  old  zigzag  fences ;  and  the  farmer  boys  brush  him 
off  the  fences  with  cruel  clubs,  and  take  their  first  shoot- 
ing lessons  while  gunning  for  "  chip  "  and  his  cousins. 

But  in  spite  of  all  enemies,  the  chipmunks  hold  their  own. 
They  are  prolific  breeders,  five  or  six  young  being  generally 
found  in  a  nest ;  they  find  their  food  almost  anywhere,  and 
on  account  of  their  small  size  they  can  find  homes  and  hiding- 
places  everywhere. 

Because  the  chipmunk  has  so  many  enemies,  it  has  learned, 
like  most  wild  animals,  to  be  always  on  the  alert.  The  habits 
of  "chip"  have  been  well  observed  and  described  by  John 
Burroughs  and  Charles  C.  Abbott.  I  once  more  quote  from 
the  latter ;  he  writes  about  a  family  of  eight  as  follows : 
"  On  the  23d  of  June  six  young  chipmunks  made  their  ap- 
pearance about  the  stone  wall  in  the  yard.  It  puzzles  me 
even  now  when  I  think  of  it,  to  imagine  when  this  family 
of  eight  chatterboxes  took  any  rest  or  kept  moderately  quiet. 
Very  frequently  during  that  summer  I  was  astir  at  sunrise, 
and  I  always  found  that  these  chipmunks  were  already  on 
the  go,  and  throughout  July  they  appeared  to  do  little  but 
play.  They  seemed  to  be  playing  at  what  children  know 
as  *  tag,'  i.e.  they  chased  each  other  to  and  fro  in  a  wild, 
madcap  fashion,  and  tried  to  touch  or  catch  one  another,  and 
sometimes  to  bite  one  another's  tail.  Occasionally  the  tail 
of  some  laggard  gets  a  nip  and  he  gives  a  pitiful  squeal 
which  starts  them  all  to  chattering.  The  way  in  which  they 
scamper  along  the  tapering  points  of  a  paling  fence  is 

Cabbage  butterflies  and  monarch  butterflies,  their  eggs  and  larvae. 


170         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

simply  astonishing;  but  however  mad  may  be  their  galloping, 
let  a  hawk  swoop  down  or  even  pass  over,  and  in  a  moment 
every  one  is  motionless.  If  they  are  on  a  fence,  they  simply 
squat  where  they  are  and  trust  to  luck  to  escape  being  seen. 
If  on  the  ground  when  an  enemy  is  discovered,  and  not  too 
far  from  their  underground  nests,  which  is  not  often  the 
case,  unless  foraging,  they  will  dart  to  these  nests  with  in- 
credible swiftness,  and  going,  I  think,  the  whale  length  of 
the  passageway  to  the  nest  proper,  they  turn  about  imme- 
diately and  retrace  their  steps  to  the  entrance,  from  which 
they  will  peer  out  and,  when  the  danger  is  over,  cautiously 
reappear  and  recommence  their  sports.  These  creatures, 
during  the  summer,  play  merely  for  play's  sake,  and  seem 
to  have  no  more  important  object  in  view  than  amusement. 
Indeed,  so  far  as  I  have  studied  animal  life,  this  indulgence 
in  play,  just  as  children  play,  and  for  the  same  reasons,  is 
common  to  all  animals.  Frogs,  perhaps,  in  this  respect  are 
the  nearest  to  being  old  fogies,  as  I  never  could  detect  any- 
thing on  their  part  that  the  most  vivid  imagination  could 
construe  into  '  having  fun.7 " 

About  the  middle  of  August  the  chipmunks  settle  down  to 
business.  They  now  wander  about  in  search  of  corn, 
beechnuts,  acorns,  hickory  nuts,  and  other  seeds  and  grain. 
With  these  treasures  they  fill  their  cheek  pouches  until  they 
look  like  children  with  the  mumps.  In  this  manner  they 
carry  large  stores  of  winter  supplies  into  their  nests.  A 
part  of  their  provisions  is  stored  in  the  nest  proper ;  the  bal- 
ance is  laid  down  in  the  galleries  and  special  storerooms. 
This  work  is  continued  until  the  first  heavy  white  frosts 
appear ;  at  which  time  they  largely  give  up  their  outdoor  life. 

For  some  time,  until  real  cold  weather  sets  in,  they  live 
on  their  stores ;  but  when  winter  begins  in  earnest  they  be- 
come torpid,  cuddle  close  together,  and  go  to  sleep  in  their 

Observations.  —Honeybees  and  bumblebees  on  flowers. 


ANIMAL  LIFE   IN  THE   WOODS  171 

cosey  nest.  This  state  of  torpidity  probably  continues  with- 
out interruption  until  the  first  warm  days  of  spring,  when 
the  snow  begins  to  melt  and  bare  patches  of  ground  appear. 

Animals  which  sleep  through  the  whole  or  part  of  the 
winter  without  needing  any  food  are  said  to  hibernate.  Do 
you  know  of  other  animals  that  go  into  hibernation  when 
winter  begins  ? 

As  stated  above,  the  chipmunks  reappear  in  early  spring, 
in  March  or  April.  As  they  cannot  find  any  food  at  that 
early  time,  they  subsist  on  their  stores.  The  quantity  of 
food  stored  is  often  surprising.  A  gill  of  wheat  and  buck- 
wheat, a  quart  of  hazelnuts,  a  peck  of  beechnuts,  some 
Indian  corn,  two  quarts  of  buckwheat,  and  a  small  amount 
of  grass  seed  have  been  found  in  one  nest  and  in  it's  gal- 
leries. 

As  the  little  animals  do  eat  some  grain,  farmers  have 
generally  little  love  for  them  ;  still  they  could  scarcely  work 
any  considerable  injury,  unless  they  should  appear  in  very 
large  numbers. 

§  19.   The  Tree  Squirrels. 

MATERIAL  :  Pictures,  mounted  specimens  or  skins  of  the  red  and  the 
gray  squirrel ;  a  summer  nest,  some  seeds  and  nuts  found  in  squirrel 
stores  ;  clean  skulls  of  squirrels,  chipmunks,  rabbits,  gophers,  mice, 
and  other  gnawers  ;  live  squirrel  in  a  cage. 

The  Red  Squirrel  (Sciurus  Hudsonius)  and  the  Gray  Squir- 
rel (Sciurus  Carolinensis)  are  known  to  every  country  boy. 
Besides  the  two  species  mentioned,  the  Fox  Squirrel  and  the 
Common  Flying  Squirrel  also  inhabit  the  northern  United 
States  east  of  the  Eocky  Mountains.  The  fox  squirrel  is 
the  largest,  and  its  color  is  generally  a  rusty  gray.  But 
both  the  gray  squirrel  and  the  fox  squirrel  exhibit  much 
variation  in  color. 

Examine  carefully  the  claws  of  butterflies  and  wasps  caught  on  milk- 
weed flowers. 


172        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

The  red  squirrel  builds  a  summer  nest  of  twigs  and  leaves, 
often  lining  it  with  moss.  The  nest  is  placed  in  a  tree,  and 
to  it  the  squirrel  retires  at  night  and  in  inclement  weather. 
The  young  are  generally  born  in  a  holloiv  tree,  which  is  also 
preferred  by  the  parent  for  its  winter  home.  In  regions 
where  hollow  trees  are  scarce  or  where  the  winters  are  se- 
vere, it  makes  its  winter  home  in  burrows,  which  it  tunnels 
itself. 

In  late  summer  when  nuts  and  seeds  begin  to  ripen,  the 
red  squirrels,  like  the  chipmunks,  begin  to  think  of  the 
future.  They  gather  large  quantities  of  nuts,  acorns,  and 
different  seeds  which  they  hide  in  hollow  trees,  under  leaves 
and  brush,  and  probably  also  in  the  ground.  They  do  not 
hibernate,  but  on  mild  days  visit  their  storehouses  to  feed. 
On  very  cold  days  they  are  not  seen,  and  they  no  doubt 
then  live  on  the  provisions  stored  away  in  their  nest.  They 
frequently  draw  on  the  farmer's  granary  for  their  winter's 
supply,  and  will  even  take  up  their  permanent  abode  in  such 
places,  if  the  farmer  does  not  vigorously  object  to  the 
arrangement. 

Although  the  squirrels  live  principally  on  a  vegetable 
diet,  all  of  them  are  fond  of  an  occasional  steak  or  omelette. 
They  are  inveterate  destroyers  of  the  eggs  and  young  of  our 
birds,  and  should  therefore  not  be  tolerated  around  farms  and 
parks.  They  also  eat  insects ;  in  fact,  any  small  animal  they 
can  catch  and  overcome.  I  have  seen  the  red  squirrel  open 
deformed  stalks  of  cottonwood  leaves  and  eat  the  plant  lice 
living  in  them.  It  was  at  this  work  for  hours  and  the 
ground  was  strewn  with  the  deformed  leaves.  The  plant 
lice  seemed  to  have  been  carefully  licked  out  of  their 
nests. 

When  a  squirrel  eats,  it  sits  on  its  hind  legs,  gracefully 
turns  up  its  bushy  tail,  and  uses  its  fore  feet  with  great  dex- 
terity like  hands. 


ANIMAL  LIFE   IN  THE   WOODS  173 

All  squirrels  are  exceedingly  well  adapted  to  arboreal  life. 
Their  bodies  are  light,  the  legs  short  and  all  the  toes  are 
provided  with  sharp  claws,  by  which  they  can  hold  to  the 
bark  of  trees  and  even  run  along  small  horizontal  branches. 

Their  teeth  also  are  well  fitted  to  open  and  to  grind  up  hard 
seeds.  They  have  two  upper  and  two  lower  chisel-like 
incisors.  As  you  see  on  this  skull,  there  is  a  gap  behind 
the  incisors  in  each  jaw,  and  behind  the  gap  we  see  a  num- 
ber of  molars.  With  their  sharp  incisors,  they  can  chisel 
open  the  hardest  nuts  and  gnaw  holes  through  boards. 
Their  food  is  ground  between  the  molars  by  a  forward  and 
backward  motion  of  the  lower  jaw.  Do  you  think  they 
could  gnaw  by  moving  the  jaws  sideways  as  a  cow  moves 
them  ?  And  1  have  another  hard  question  for  you.  All 
boys  know  that  a  knife  blade  becomes  narrower  by  the  wear- 
ing away  of  the  steel,  if  you  keep  it  long  enough  and  use  it 
much.  The  teeth  of  horses  and  also  human  teeth  wear  off 
with  age.  While  the  squirrel  is  awake,  it  scarcely  passes 
an  hour  without  gnawing  on  some  hard  substance.  How  is 
it  that  its  teeth  do  not  wear  off  ?  The  fact  is,  they  do  wear 
off  quite  fast;  but  they  keep  on  growing  just  as  fast.  If  you 
ever  keep  a  squirrel  for  a  pet,  you  must  give  it  nuts  and 
hard  seeds  and  even  pieces  of  wood,  on  which  it  can  use  its- 
teeth  ;  for  without  such  exercise  these  soon  become  so  long 
that  they  hinder  the  animal  in  eating.  Squirrels  not  only 
can  gnaw,  but  they  must  gnaw. 

I  am  sure  we  all  enjoy  the  quick  graceful  motions  of  the 
squirrels  and  love  to  have  the  stillness  of  the  summer  woods 
broken  by  their  lively  scolding.  Who  would  not  rather 
observe  a  live  squirrel  among  the  shady  boughs,  than  shoot 
it  and  see  it  lying  on  the  ground  dead  and  bleeding  ?  All 
lovers  of  nature  certainly  regret  that,  on  account  of  their 
"bird  and  grain  eating  propensities,  they  are  not  desirable  in 
the  immediate  neighborhood  of  our  homes.  Young  squirrels 


174        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

make  pretty  pets,  but  only  the  flying  squirrel  becomes 
entirely  tame ;  the  others  are  apt  to  bite  their  own  master, 
when  they  get  older. 

The  enemies  of  the  tree  squirrels  are  about  the  same  as  those 
of  the  chipmunk.  When  a  squirrel  is  pursued  by  an  enemy, 
it  often  jumps  boldly  from  a  very  high  limb,  and  always 
lands  safely  on  another  tree  or  on  the  ground.  When  sail- 
ing through  the  air,  they  spread  their  legs  and  stretch  out  their 
tail,  and  sail  like  a  parachute.  The  flying  squirrels  can  do 
this  best,  because  their  fore  and  hind  limbs  are  connected 
by  a  fold  of  skin. 

The  flesh  of  all  squirrels  is  edible ;  but  I  believe  you  will 
all  agree  with  me,  that  it  is  much  more  interesting  to  study 
a  live  squirrel  in  the  woods  than  to  eat  the  dead  squirrel. 

The  teacher  should  always  encourage  pupils  to  make  original  ob- 
servations, and  should  occasionally  give  them  an  opportunity  to  report 
on  them.  Children  never  tire  of  observing  plants  and  animals  out- 
doors. Let  some  boy  tell  how  squirrels  hide  themselves  on  trees, 
when  they  are  hunted  or  pursued. 

§  20.    The  Gray  Rabbit,  Cottontail.     Lepus  sylvaticus. 

MATERIAL  :  Picture  or  mounted  rabbit.  As  the  rabbit  is  a  game 
animal,  a  freshly  killed  and  unmangled  specimen  may  be  used  to  good 
advantage.  Clean  skulls  of  rabbits  and  other  gnawers  for  comparison. 
Twigs  and  young  trees,  from  which  rabbits  have  eaten  the  bark. 

In  our  study  of  common  mammals,  we  must  not  omit 
"Brer  Rabbit."  He  is  at  home  from  Massachusetts  to 
Florida,  and  west  to  the  prairies  of  Minnesota. 

OUTLINE  FOR  LESSON 

1.  Unlike  squirrels,  rabbits  cannot  climb  trees ;  but  their 
long  hind  legs  enable  them  to  run  very  fast;  uphill  they 
can  run  better  than  downhill. 

2.  Their  large   incisors   show  them  to   be   gnawers,   or 
rodents,  like  squirrels,  rats,  and  mice ;  but  they  have  four 


ANIMAL  LIFE   IN   THE   WOODS  175 

incisors  in  the  upper  jaw.     They  gnaw  the  bark  from  shrubs 
and  young  trees. 

3.  For  the  greater  part  of  the  day  they  remain  in  their 
form,  which  is  simply  a  hollow  on  the  ground,  and  is  con- 
cealed by  tall  grass  or  brush. 

4.  They  live  in  the  woods,  in  groves,  under  brush,  even 
in   lumber-yards   of  large   cities.     At  night,  early   in   the 
morning,  and  towards  evening,  they  feed  on  grasses,  herbs, 
young  grain,  and  vegetables.     In  the  winter  they  live  on 
bark  and  buds,  and  often  become  very  injurious  to  orchards 
by  killing  young  fruit  trees.     This  can  be  prevented  by 
covering  the  trunks  for  about  two  feet  above  the  ground 
with  tar  paper. 

5.  Rabbits  do  not  hibernate.     Their  winter  homes  are 
deserted  holes  of  skunks,  woodchucks,  and  other  burrowers. 
In  the  Northern  States,  they  probably  do  make  holes  for 
themselves. 

6.  When  pursued,  they  run  swiftly  to  some  cover,  which 
may  be  brush,  a  hole,  or  a  hollow  tree ;  for  they  have  no 
means  of  defending  themselves.    When  captured  or  wounded, 
they  utter  a  cry  resembling  that  of  a  child  in  pain;  at  no 
other  time  is  their  voice  heard.     How  do   they  compare 
with  the  chipmunk  and  the  squirrel  in  this  respect  ? 

7.  In  autumn,  the  summer  hair  falls,  and  a  thicker  covering- 
grows.     Along  the  back  this  coat  is  gray,  varied  with  black, 
and  more  or  less  tinged  with  yellow;    below  it  is  white. 
The  tail  is  cottony-white,  hence  the  name.     Does  the  mixt- 
ure  of   gray,   black,   and  yellow  make   Brer  Eabbit   con- 
spicuous on  the  ground?     The  cottontails  do  not  become 
white  in  winter. 

8.  Are   not   easily   tamed ;   always   try   to  escape   from 
confinement. 

9.  Are   among  the  most  defenceless   of  animals.      Their 
enemies  are  legion.     Men  and  boys,  dogs  and  domestic  cats, 


176         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

wolves  and  foxes,  wildcats  and  lynxes,  bloodthirsty  weasels, 
hawks  and  owls,  and  even  large  snakes,  all  seek  to  take 
Brer  Rabbit's  life. 

10.  In  spite  of  all,  the  gray  rabbit  holds  on,  and  has  even 
increased  with  the  settlement  of  the  country.  How  is  he 
protected  ?  His  color  blends  with  that  of  the  ground,  the 
dead  grass,  or  the  brush.  He  is  small,  and  hides  where 
most  of  his  enemies  cannot  follow.  He  is  always  on  the 
alert ;  the  long  ears  perceive  the  slightest  suspicious  sound. 
Rabbits  are  very  prolific.  In  northern  states  young  are 
produced  three  times  in  one  summer,  each  litter  consisting 
of  from  five  to  seven  tiny  cottontails.  Their  food  is  almost 
everywhere  abundant,  and  although  many  of  the  young 
fall  a  prey  to  their  enemies,  quite  a  number  survive.  The 
settlement  of  the  country  has  reduced  the  number  of  their 
natural  enemies. 

Do  you  not  think  that  a  rabbit  suddenly  appearing  before 
you,  and  whisking  into  the  brush,  is  a  pretty  sight  ?  How 
lonely  the  woods  would  be  without  birds,  chipmunks,  squir- 
rels, and  rabbits !  Would  you  have  the  heart  to  take  the 
mother  from  young  animals,  and  cruelly  starve  the  little 
ones  to  death  ?  I  know  you  would  not.  But  that  is  pre- 
cisely what  you  do,  if  you  hunt  in  the  season  when  birds 
and  other  animals  have  young.  It  is  not  wrong  to  hunt 
for  sport,  and  use  the  flesh  or  skin  of  the  animal  taken. 
Still,  I  believe  that  it  is  much  more  pleasant  and  interest- 
ing to  ramble  through  woods  and  marsh  with  sharp  eyes,  a 
field-glass,  and  a  kodak,  than  with  a  murderous  shotgun  or 
rifle.  But  the  boy  or  man  who  kills  anything  and  every- 
thing, without  a  good  reason  for  it,  is  a  brute.  Unless 
animals  are  decidedly  injurious,  they  have  a  right  to  live. 
The  earth  was  not  made  exclusively  for  man.  Let  not 
nature's  ruler  degrade  himself  to  be  nature's  hangman ! 

The  White  Rabbit,  or  Northern  Hare  (Lepus  Americanus), 


ANIMAL  LIFE   IN  THE   WOODS  177 

occurs  from  New  England  to  Minnesota.  It  is  a  little  larger 
than  the  cottontail.  During  the  summer  its  fur  is  brown, 
but  becomes  white  in  winter. 

On  our  Western  prairies  occurs  the  Jack  Rabbit,  or  Prairie 
Hare  (Lepus  oampestris).  It  is  the  largest  of  our  American 
hares.  The  cottontail  rabbit  is  also  a  true  hare.  Jack 
Eabbits  are  yellowish-gray  in  summer  and  white  in  winter. 
Of  what  benefit  may  such  change  of  color  be  to  the  animal  ? 

Some  time  ago,  when  we  studied  the  grasses,  we  learned 
what  an  important  place  these  plants  occupied  in  the 
economy  of  nature.  We  have  recently  studied  several  rep- 
resentatives of  a  very  important  and  widely  distributed 
animal  family,  the  Rodents  or  Gnawers.  The  hare  belongs 
to  the  larger  rodents ;  the  largest  North  American  rodent  is 
the  Beaver.  Rodents  are  found  in  all  countries  and  in  all 
zones.  Most  of  them,  as  you  know,  are  small,  like  gophers, 
rats,  and  mice.  To  the  rodents  belong  also  the  different 
kinds  of  Gophers,  the  Muskrat,  the  Woodchuck,  and  the 
Porcupine.  Some  of  these  animals  we  shall  study  later. 
In  the  meantime,  observe  the  rodents  as  much  as  you  can, 
and  try  to  find  out  in  what  respect  they  are  important  in 
nature's  economy.  You  have  learned  that  most  of  them 
are  small  and  rather  defenceless;  nevertheless  they  are 
very  numerous  as  individuals,  and  are  also  in  species  the 
largest  family  among  mammals.  How  do  they  hold  their 
own  against  hosts  of  enemies  ? 

§  21.    The  Underbrush. 

MATERIAL  :  Twigs,  sprays,  flowers,  and  fruit  of  a  number  of  shrubs, 
vines,  and  small  trees.  Names  of  species  are  not  very  important  for 
this  lesson. 

All  the  trees  are  now  in  full  foliage  and  protect  the 
ground  from  the  rays  of  the  summer  sun.  It  would  not  be 
possible  to  raise  a  crop  of  wheat  or  potatoes  on  ground 

N 


178        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

shaded  by  dense  foliage ;  still  there  are  plants  which  can 
not  only  endure  shade,  but  which  will  not  live  where  they 
are  not  shaded.  If  you  transplant  ferns,  the  large  yellow 
lady's-slippers,  and  many  other  plants  from  the  woods  into 
your  garden,  they  will  die,  unless  you  provide  shade  for 
them.  Under  the  giants  of  the  woods,  we  find  many  small 
trees  and  shrubs,  such  as  wild  gooseberries,  dogwood,  hazel, 
prickly  ash,  and  others.  Here  and  there  we  see  vines  that 
have  climbed  up  on  large  trees  and  some  even  encircle  thick 
trunks  with  firm  coils ;  the  latter  kind  are  called  twiners. 
Can  you  tell  how  the  wild  grapevine  and  the  Virginia 
creeper  ascend  to  the  tops  of  the  high  trees  ?  The  false 
bittersweet,  which  brightens  the  bushes  in  the  fall  with 
beautiful  scarlet  fruit,  and  the  wild  hops  are  true  twiners. 

All  these  smaller  woody  plants  constitute  the  underbrush 
in  woods  and  forests.  This  underbrush  adds  much  beauty 
and  variety  to  the  woods,  for  a  whole  forest  showing  nothing 
but  large  trees  might  be  grand,  but  would  soon  tire  our  eyes. 

The  underbrush  is  also  of  much  importance  to  all  the  deni- 
zens of  the  woods.  Do  you  remember  where  we  found  the 
nests  of  catbirds,  thrashers,  and  warblers  ?  Where  could 
they  hide  their  nests  from  their  numerous  enemies,  if  vines 
and  plum  trees  made  no  dense  tangles  and  hazel  and  dog- 
wood formed  no  thick  bushes  ?  When  the  young  birds  are 
hatched,  the  numerous  insects  living  on  the  brush  furnish 
just  such  tender  morsels  as  the  delicate  little  stomachs  can 
digest.  And  later  in  the  season,  when  the  young  birds  can 
take  care  of  themselves  and  possibly  begin  to  tire  just  a 
little  of  bugs,  grasshoppers,  and  caterpillars,  then  the  bushes 
offer  bird  cherries  and  chokecherries,  wild  plums  and  grapes, 
raspberries,  blackberries,  and  all  kinds  of  berries.  Even  in 
late  fall,  after  the  woods  have  again  prepared  for  their 
winter  rest,  the  thick,  black  bunches  of  the  twining  moon- 
seed,  the  dark  blue  berries  of  the  Virginia  creeper,  and 


ANIMAL   LIFE   IN  THE   WOODS  179 

the  crimson  fruit  of  the  false  bittersweet  will  catch  your 
eye. 

In  some  thick  brush  the  young  cottontail  rabbits  have 
their  layer ;  there  the  doe  also  conceals  her  beautiful,  spotted 
fawns.  In  the  summer  time  grass,  herbs,  leaves,  and  tender 
shoots  furnish  abundant  food  for  all ;  but  during  the  winter 
the  cottontails  have  to  rely  largely  on  the  bark  of  shrubs 
and  small  trees,  and  the  deer  on  buds  and  twigs. 

The  birds  that  depend  so  much  on  the  underbrush  actually 
plant  many  of  the  shrubs.  When  they  eat  the  fruit  of 
sumachs,  cherries,  grapevines,  and  others,  they  do  not  digest 
the  hard  seeds  and  these  grow,  if  the  birds  happen  to  drop 
them  in  favorable  places.  During  the  spring  and  fall  mi- 
grations, seeds  are  often  dropped  hundreds  of  miles  from 
the  parent  plant.  Do  you  think  that  some  trees  and  shrubs 
depend  as  much  on  birds  for  the  dissemination  of  their 
seeds  as  birds  depend  on  plants  for  food  ?  What  purpose 
may  the  black,  blue,  red,  and  white  colors  of  ripe  berries 
serve  ?  Are  black  and  dark  blue  conspicuous  colors  ? 
Would  yellow  and  brown  be  conspicuous  colors  for  late 
ripening  berries  ? 

Many  shrubs  and  trees,  if  they  are  cut  off,  will  produce 
new  shoots  from  the  stump ;  others  even  spread  by  stems, 
which  grow  directly  from  the  roots.  Stumps  of  willows, 
poplars,  lindens,  and  oaks  produce  a  large  number  of  shoots, 
which  grow  luxuriantly  and  often  have  abnormally  large 
leaves,  because  a  large  system  of  roots  provides  food  for 
them.  These  shoots  frequently  form  a  thick  brush,  but 
trees  and  shrubs  grown  from  stumps  and  roots  do  not  be- 
come as  large  and  do  not  live  as  long  as  those  grown  from 
seed. 

As  we  observe  the  trees  through  the  summer,  we  must 
also  notice  the  smaller  woody  plants  and  their  flowers  and 
fruits,  although  we  may  not  know  the  names  of  all. 


180        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

§  22.  Closing  Remarks  on  "  Life  in  the  Woods." 
We  must  now  leave  the  squirrels,  the  birds,  the  trees 
and  shrubs,  and  turn  our  attention  to  the  fields.  You  have 
learned  only  a  little  about  the  woods  and  the  life  there. 
Many  things  which  are  not  found  in  books  you  can  learn 
by  patient  observation,  for  which  most  of  you  have  much 
time  and  opportunity  in  your  long  summer  vacation.  Our 
plant  and  animal  life  is  just  as  wonderful  and  just  as  inter- 
esting as  that  of  countries  far  away  in  the  tropics.  Before 
we  take  up  the  life  in  the  fields,  I  wish  to  ask  you  a  few 
questions,  the  complete  answer  to  which  we  shall  find  when 
we  again  study  the  work  in  the  fall. 

You  have  observed  that  the  snow  lingered  much  longer 
in  groves,  copses,  and  woods  than  on  open  fields.  What 
effect  may  this  retarded  snow-melting  have  upon  the  water 
supply  of  our  brooks  and  rivers  ?  Do  you  know  anything 
about  the  destructive  floods  that  occur  almost  annually  in 
the  Ohio  and  its  tributaries  ?  We  have  observed  that 
twigs,  branches,  and  even  whole  trees  fall  into  streams 
and  more  or  less  retard  the  current.  What  effect  must 
this  have  upon  the  water  in  the  streams  and  the  lakes 
which  they  drain  ?  Where  will  the  water  after  a  shower 
drain  off  quicker,  from  a  bare  field  or  from  the  woods  ? 
Where  will  the  ground  soonest  become  dry  and  parched  ? 
You  can  answer  these  questions  from  your  own  observa- 
tions. Do  trees  grow  in  countries  where  little  or  no  rain 
falls  ?  Which  of  our  states  are  prairie  .states  ?  Have  you 
ever  thought  about  what  caused  the  prairies  ? 

Read :  Shaler,  The  Forests  of  North  America  in  Aspects  of  the 
Earth  ;  Wilson  Flagg,  A  Year  with  the  Trees  ;  and  Chittenden,  or  some 
other  author  on  the  Yellowstone  Park.  The  above  books  are  suited 
to  teachers  and  older  pupils. 


V 
IN   THE   FIELD.      JUNE    TO  SEPTEMBER 

NOTE. — The  teacher  should  modify  and  change  this  introduction 
to  suit  the  season  and  local  conditions. 

§  23.  By  far  the  largest  part  of  our  country,  as  you  have 
learned  from  history  and  geography,  was  once  forest  or 
prairie.  Many  thousand  square  miles  of  the  forests  have 
now  been  cleared,  and  several  large  states  have  been  carved 
out  of  the  vast  prairies  in  the  Mississippi  basin.  Perhaps 
your  fathers  and  grandfathers  can  tell  you  about  the  big 
trees  they  had  to  cut  down  and  the  stumps  they  had  to 
grub  out,  or  how  they  broke  up  the  virgin  prairie.  As  we 
walk  along  a  country  road  or  ramble  about  on  a  farm,  we  at 
once  perceive  that  a  great  difference  exists  between  the  plants 
farmers  cultivate  and  bettveen  the  wild  plants  along  roadsides 
and  fences  in  uncultivated  corners  and  on  wild  meadows.  On 
our  way  to  and  from  school  we  pass  waving  fields  of  Wheat, 
Rye,  Oats,  and  Barley.  These  four  plants  look  very  much 
alike  before  they  produce  ears,  and  I  shall  find  out  how 
many  of  you  can  distinguish  them.  Can  you  tell  me  what 
wild  plants  they  resemble  closely  ?  Among  these  small 
grains  we  noticed  the  purple  flowers  of  the  cockle  and  the 
bright  yellow  flowers  of  the  wild  mustard,  and  a  number  of 
other  less  conspicuous  weeds ;  but  all  of  them  are  injurious  to 
the  grain  crop.  We  also  pass  fields  of  corn  which  is  almost 
large  enough  to  bloom,  and  patches  of  potatoes  whose  white 
flowers  form  a  pretty  contrast  with  the  dark  green  leaves. 

Observations.  —  Note  the  ever-increasing  number  of  insects: 
181 


182      HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

As  corn  and  potatoes  are  planted  in  rows,  weeds  can  be 
kept  down  among  them  by  cultivating  and  hoeing. 

Along  the  road,  where  the  ground  has  been  broken  up, 
we  meet  the  common  road  weeds,  with  several  of  which  we 
became  acquainted  last  fall.  You  may  mention  a  few  of 
them.  In  several  places,  where  the  ground  has  never  been 
broken,  we  find  plants  still  different.  Later  in  the  year 
goldenrods  and  wild  sunflowers  predominate  there,  all  of 
which  belong  to  the  native  wild  flowers  of  our  country. 

On  some  of  the  potato  plants  we  found  the  well-known 
injurious  potato  beetle ;  on  the  ground,  grasshoppers  were 
common  everywhere,  and  crickets  made  their  music  all 
day  long,  but  could  not  always  be  found.  A  few  times 
we  observed  a  gopher  sitting  upright  and  looking  at  us ; 
but  as  soon  as  we  approached,  he  disappeared  into  his  hole. 

All  of  us,  I  am  sure,  have  seen  the  kingbird.  He  gener- 
ally perches  on  a  post  or  a  rail,  and  from  time  to  time  he 
darts  after  some  insect,  catches  it  on  the  wing,  and  returns 
to  his  perch.  Some  of  the  boys  tell  me  that  they  hear  Bob 
White,  the  quail,  every  morning,  and  often  see  him  sitting 
on  the  fence  post.  Ernest  tells  me  that  he  knows  where  a 
flock  of  prairie  chickens  live,  and  that  several  weeks  ago  he 
found  a  nest  with  twenty  eggs  in  it. 

But  when  reviewing  the  plants  and  animals  of  the  field, 
we  must  not  forget  the  soil  upon  which  they  all  depend  for 
food.  We  had  a  good  opportunity  to  observe  the  soil  in 
several  places  where  road  work  had  been  done.  On  top  we 
found  everywhere  a  layer  of  black  soil,  called  loam.  This 
loam  was  from  one  to  one  and  a  half  feet  thick  and  con- 
tained a  very  large  number  of  roots.  Below  the  loam  was 
a  yellowish  clay  in  most  places ;  in  a  few  localities  sand 
and  gravel  took  the  place  of  the  clay. 

Observations. — Chinch-bugs,  potato  beetles,  grasshoppers,  and  others. 


IN   THE   FIELD  183 

§  24.    Wheat,  Rye,  Barley,  and  Oats. 

MATERIAL  :  Young  grain  sown  in  boxes  or  cans ;  young  bean- 
plants  ;  bunches  of  full-grown  grain  showing  roots  and  flowers  ;  ripe 
ears  and  straws  of  each  kind  collected  the  previous  years  or  selected 
from  early  matured  plants  ;  a  handful  of  kernels  from  each  kind ; 
small  quantities  of  wheat  and  rye  flour ;  cracked  oats  and  barley 
would  be  interesting  to  the  children.  The  children  should  have  ob- 
served, as  far  as  possible,  the  sowing,  harvesting,  threshing,  market- 
ing, and  milling  of  grain  ;  but  these  subjects  can  best  be  enlarged 
upon  in  connection  with  the  geography  of  the  wheat-producing  states. 
Wherever  practicable,  city  children  should  see  fields  of  grain.  The 
teacher  should  briefly  review  here  what  has  been  learned  about  the 
structure  and  use  of  grasses. 

We  begin  to  study  to-day  the  structure  and  life  history  of 
the  most  important  of  all  plants,  —  the  cereals. 

Lack  of  space  prevents  us  from  saying  much  about  the 
history  of  our  cereals.  Wheat  and  barley  were  known  to,  and 
cultivated  by,  the  ancient  Egyptians  and  Hebrews  two 
thousand  years  before  Christ;  but  these  peoples  were  not 
acquainted  with  rye  and  oats,  both  of  which  were,  however, 
well  known  to  the  Romans  about  the  time  of  Christ.  Buck- 
wheat did  not  become  known  in  central  Europe  until  the 
fifteenth  century,  when  it  was  probably  introduced  by  the 
Saracens  ;  the  French  still  call  it  Saracen  wheat.  Nothing 
definite  is  known  about  the  origin  and  original  home  of  these 
plants.  Like  our  domestic  animals,  they  must  have  sprung 
from  wild  species,  but  these  wild  forms  can  no  longer  be  made 
out  with  any  certainty  and  may  indeed  be  extinct. 

The  teacher  who  is  interested  in  this  subject  is  referred  to  De  Can- 
dolle's  Origin  of  Cultivated  Plants. 

Time  for  solving.  —  In  states  where  the  winters  are  not 
too  cold,  as  in  Iowa  and  Illinois,  farmers  raise  mostly 
winter  wheat  and  winter  rye.  The  time  for  sowing  these 
is  in  fall.  In  what  month  is  it  done  in  your  latitude  ?  The 

How  does  the  kingbird  catch  its  food? 


184         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

leaves  of  the  winter  wheat  and  also  the  roots  remain  quite 
small  in  autumn,  but  the  plants  remain  green  under  the 
winter's  snow.  In  more  northern  states,  as  Minnesota  and 
Dakota,  wheat  is  sown  in  spring,  as  soon  as  the  ground  is 
in  condition  to  be  worked.  What  is  the  usual  time  for  your 
locality  ?  Barley  and  oats  are  always  sown  in  spring. 

Now  let  us  examine  the  different  young  seedlings.  I  have 
here  those  of  wheat,  rye,  oats,  and  barley ;  from  all  of  which 
I  have  carefully  washed  away  the  soil.  They  all  germinated 
with  one  thin,  grass-like  germ-leaf,  while  a  small  root  pro- 
ceeded downward  from  each  grain. 

Now  let  us  take  plants  which  are  several  weeks  old.  On 
these  we  observe  that  the  original  stem  has  branched  or 
tillered  profusely  near  the  ground,,  so  that  it  looks  as  if 
many  plants  grew  from  one  seed.  The  one  small  root 
which  we  observed  in  the  very  young  plants  has  decayed, 
but  its  place  is  taken  by  a  whole  bunch  of  fibrous  roots 
which  spread  in  all  directions,  but  do  not  penetrate  very 
deep  into  the  soil.  How  do  these  fibrous  roots  differ  from 
the  roots  of  the  burdock,  the  carrot,  and  the  parsnip  ? 

Culm  and  leaves.  —  The  culms  are  hollow,  but  nevertheless 
strong  and  also  sufficiently  flexible.  If  you  look  at  one 
carefully,  you  will  notice  longitudinal  whitish  ribs,  which 
are  also  well  shown  in  a  cross-section  of  the  culm.  These 
whitish  ribs  consist  of  a  tough  and  somewhat  woody  sub- 
stance. But  the  principal  source  of  strength  for  the  long 
culms  are  the  knots,  or  nodes,  of  which  several  are  found  in 
each  culm.  Cut  one  of  these  nodes  and  you  will  find  that 
it  is  very  hard  and  not  hollow.  Another  source  of  strength 
are  the  leaves,  which  form  a  sheath  for  several  inches 
around  the  stem  above  each  node.  Thus  constructed,  the  long, 
thin  culms  are  able  to  stand  erect.  Since  many  of  them  grow 

Observations. — Observe  prairie  chickens  and  quails,  but  be  very  care- 
ful not  to  disturb  their  nests. 


IN   THE   FIELD  185 

close  together,  they  protect  one  another  in  a  strong  wind, 
and  although  they  easily  bend,  so  that  a  grainfield  often  re- 
minds us  of  the  rolling  waves  of  a  lake,  they  become  kneed 
only  by  a  severe  rain  storm  and  by  hail.  If  grain  is  laid  by 
a  heavy  rain,  the  nodes  shorten  on  the  upper  side  and 
lengthen  and  thicken  on  the  lower  side.  In  this  way  the 
culms  rise  again  to  enjoy  their  share  of  the  sunlight  and  the 
summer  breeze.  Only  in  places  where  for  various  reasons 
the  growth  is  too  rank,  the  grain  will  not  rise  again,  if  it 
once  becomes  laid. 

Ears  and  flowers.  —  The  ears  of  wheat,  rye,  and  barley 
consist  of  numerous  smaller  ears  which  are  called  spikelets. 
The  spikelets  are  attached  to  the  common  stem  in  two 
columns  which  are  opposite  each  other.  In  wheat  and  rye 
we  find  one  spikelet  on  each  joint  of  the  stem ;  in  barley, 
three.  A  wheat  spikelet  has  three  to  four,  a  rye  spikelet 
two  flowers,  and  a  barley  spikelet  has  only  one  flower. 
.  For  a  large  green  calyx  and  a  bright  corolla  we  look  in  vain. 
Their  place  is  taken  by  a  number  of  chaff-like  scales,  which 
are  persistent  and  later  enclose  the  seeds.  In  rye  and 
barley,  some  of  the  scales  end  in  a  long  awn ;  these  awns 
are  called  beards  by  farmers.  Most  varieties  of  wheat  are 
beardless.  On  those  ears  which  are  now  in  bloom  we  find 
in  each  flower  three  anthers,  suspended  from  long,  thread- 
like filaments  which  surround  a  young  ovary,  provided  with 
delicate,  feather-shaped  stigmas.  The  flowers  of  the  oats 
are  not  produced  in  ears,  but  in  loose,  open  heads ;  in  other 
respects  the  flower  does  not  differ  so  very  much  from  those 
just  studied. 

Now  you  may  tell  me  how  the  flowers  of  grain  are  ferti- 
lized.    Recollect  what  you  have  learned  about  wild  grasses. 

Plants  that  produce  only  one  germ-leaf,  like  wheat,  rye,  and 
other  grasses,  are  monocotyledon* rms  plants;  those  which,  pro- 
Observe  the  cunning,  playful  ways  of  the  striped  gopher. 


186        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

dace  two  germ-leaves,  like  the  bean,  are  catted  dicotyledonous. 
Cotyledon  means  a  germ-leaf.  What  becomes  of  the  cotyle- 
dons of  the  bean  ?  How  can  you  distinguish  monocotyl  and 
dicotyl  by  their  leaves  ?  Hold  them  up  against  the  light 
and  notice  the  venation. 

In  our  next  lesson  we  shall  study  what  is  perhaps  the  most 
important  American  grain,  —  Indian  com  or  maize. 

§  25.    Indian  Corn  or  Maize. 

MATERIAL  :  Corn  just  sprouted  and  corn  plants  a  few  weeks  old  ; 
similar  material  of  small  grains  and  beans  for  comparison  ;  stalks  with 
roots,  tassel,  and  silk;  ear  with  corn  in  the  milk;  different  varieties 
of  ripe  corn  on  the  ear. 

This  plant  is  one  of  the  most  recent  additions  to  the  list 
of  our  cultivated  plants.  Maize,  often  simply  called  corn  in 
this  country,  was  cultivated  in  Peru,  in  Mexico,  and  to  some 
extent  by  the  Indians  in  the  United  States,  when  white 
men  first  came  in  contact  with  the  natives  of  these  several 
regions.  Kernels  of  maize  have  been  found  in  ancient 
Peruvian  and  Mexican  graves,  which  fact  proves  that,  at 
the  time  alluded  to  above,  the  cultivation  of  maize  was  not 
only  known  over  a  vast  territory,  but  was  also  very  old. 
The  original  home  of  the  plant  is  probably  in  tropical  South 
America. 

The  introduction  of  maize  into  all  mild  and  semitropical 
regions  has  proved  a  boon  to  humanity.  About  the  year 
1500  it  was  introduced  in  Europe,  and  is  now  extensively 
cultivated  in  all  southern  Europe  and  in  Asia  Minor.  For 
the  United  States  it  is  the  most  important  of  all  cereals, 
much  larger  quantities  of  it  being  raised  than  of  wheat. 

OUTLINE  FOR  LESSON 

1.  Compare  seedlings  of  small  grain  with  seedlings  of 
corn. 

Observations.  —  What  other  mammals  are  found  in  cultivated  fields? 


IN  THE   FIELD  187 

2.  Compare  the  full-grown  plants :  size,  roots,  culm,  nodes, 
leaves. 

3.  Compare  the  flowers  of  corn  with  those  of  wheat,  rye, 
and  barley. 

The  "tassel"  of  corn  contains  the  sterile  flowers;  look 
for  their  stamens  and  anthers.  The  "  silk  "  is  composed  of 
the  long  stigmas  of  the  fertile  flowers.  Find  the  exact  spot 
from  which  a  thread  of  silk  starts.  Pollen  falling  upon  the 
silk  causes  the  young  grain  in  the  husk  to  grow.  How  is 
the  pollen  shaken  from  the  anthers  ?  Are  the  flowers  well 
adapted  to  wind-fertilization  ?  What  is  an  important  dif- 
ference between  the  flowers  of  corn  and  the  flowers  of  small 
grain  ?  Corn  is  the  only  grass  which  bears  the  sterile  and 
fertile  flowers  on  separate  heads. 

4.  Corn  requires  more  heat  than  wheat.     Does  it  grow 
best  in  warm,  sheltered  bottoms  or  on  exposed  uplands? 
How  far  north  in  your  state  and  in  the  United  States  is  it 
successfully  cultivated  ? 

5.  Use  and  importance. 

6.  Varieties.  —  Some  are  more  hardy  than  others.     Use 
of  different  varieties :  pop-corn,  sugar-corn,  and  others. 

7.  Compare  the  dicotyledonous  bean  with  the  monocoty- 
ledonous  grains  and  grasses.     Hold  the  leaves  up  against 
the  light  and  notice  the  difference  in  venation.     Could  you 
tell  monocotyledons  by  the  leaves  alone  ?     To  which  class 
do  our  common  trees  belong  ? 

§  26.   The  Potato. 

MATERIAL  :  Whole  plant,  showing  roots ;  young  tubers ;  the  old, 
partly  decayed  tuber ;  leaves  and  flowers  ;  plants  injured  by  the  potato 
beetle  ;  adults,  larvae,  and  eggs  of  the  beetle  ;  mature  tubers,  showing 
buds ;  plants  or  sprouts  grown  in  dark  cellars ;  seeds  from  the  previous 
year  ;  and  seedlings  at  different  stages  of  growth  would  also  be  very 
instructive. 


188        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

History  of  cultivation.  —  The  introduction  of  the  potato 
has  proved  a  real  blessing  to  the  people  in  northern  and 
in  western  Europe.  Its  home  is  probably  in  the  mountains 
of  Chile.  Although  it  is  now  such  an  important  food  plant, 
and  is  cultivated  in  all  temperate  countries  where  white 
men  live,  yet  for  centuries  after  its  discovery  the  potato 
was  not  generally  cultivated  in  Europe.  The  Spaniards 
were  the  first  to  bring  it  to  Europe,  about  1580,  and  some 
of  the  stories  connected  with  its  introduction  in  different 
countries  are  too  good  to  be  forgotten. 

In  France  the  chemist  Parmentier  did  much  to  make  the 
new  plant  known ;  but  the  peasants  were  not  at  all  pleased 
with  the  gift  he  desired  to  present  to  them.  As  laws  com- 
manding the  peasants  to  try  the  new  plant  could  not  be 
enforced,  Parmentier  hit  upon  the  following  device:  He 
rented  large  tracts  of  land  near  Paris,  and  there  cultivated 
the  potato  on  a  large  scale.  He  then  announced  that  steal- 
ing any  of  the  foreign  plants  was  forbidden  on  pain  of 
death,  and  in  the  daytime  the  fields  were  patrolled  by 
watchmen,  but  in  the  evening  the  watchmen  withdrew. 
By  these  ostentatious  measures  the  curiosity  of  the  peas- 
ants about  the  new  plant  was  aroused  to  the  highest  pitch, 
and  as  the  fields  were  unprotected  at  night,  they  stole  every 
potato  that  grew  on  them.  Thus  the  potato  was  soon  intro- 
duced everywhere  in  France,  about  one  hundred  years  ago. 

The  Prussian  king,  Frederick  the  Great,  who  was  as  zeal- 
ous to  promote  the  welfare  of  his  country  as  he  was  to 
enlarge  its  territory,  did  much  to  make  this  useful  plant 
known  in  Prussia,  but  the  following  story  shows  that  his 
efforts  were  not  always  promptly  appreciated. 

In  1745  he  sent  a  wagonload  of  potatoes  to  his  good  city 
of  Koiberg,  where  up  to  that  time  nobody  had  ever  seen 
a  potato.  All  owners  of  gardens  from  the.  city  and  its  sub- 
urbs were  summoned  by  a  royal  order  to  appear  at  the 


IN   THE   FIELD  189 

courthouse,  where  his  Majesty  intended  to  confer  a  special 
favor  upon  them.  Great  excitement  prevailed  when  the 
tubers  were  shown  at  the  meeting;  nobody  listened  to 
the  detailed  directions,  which  a  worthy  alderman  read  to  the 
crowd;  everybody  was  busy,  —  breaking,  cutting,  smelling, 
and  tasting  his  raw  potatoes.  Some  offered  them  to  their 
dogs,  who,  of  course,  refused  to  eat  them.  "The  things 
have  neither  smell  nor  taste,  and  not  even  the  dogs  will 
eat  them ;  what  could  we  do  with  them  ?  "  was  the  verdict 
of  the  crowd.  Many  believed  that  the  potatoes  would  grow 
into  trees  from  which  the  fruit  could  be  shaken  off  like 
apples.  Not  a  few  simply  threw  their  potatoes  on  the  gar- 
bage heap,  others  planted  them  in  the  most  improper  way 
and  in  the  queerest  places ;  and  the  first  potato  crop  in 
Kolberg  was  a  total  failure.  But  Frederick's  government 
looked  to  the  execution  of  its  orders.  In  the  summer  Kol- 
berg's  aldermen  went  around  on  a  potato  inspection  tour, 
and  all  those  found  negligent  were  summarily  fined.  They 
paid  their  fine,  and  blamed  the  poor  potato  for  their  unde- 
served hard  luck.  In  the  next  year  Frederick  repeated  his 
gift,  and  sent  an  expert  potato  grower  with  it.  Potato 
culture  was  now  taken  up  in  earnest,  but  half  a  century 
elapsed  before  potatoes  became  a  somewhat  common  crop 
on  the  fields  of  Prussia. 

Nearly  everywhere  in  Europe  the  peasants  behaved  in 
the  same  way.  According  to  their  reasoning,  a  black  tuber, 
which  dogs  and  even  pigs  would  not  eat,  could  not  be  good 
for  men. 

At  the  present  time  potatoes  are  grown  in  all  temperate 
regions,  from  Hammerfest,  the  most  northern  city  of  Europe, 
to  New  Zealand  and  Australia ;  only  the  benighted  Chinese 
have  refused  to  try  them,  although  thousands  of  Chinamen 
periodically  die  of  starvation. 


190  HANDBOOK   OF  NATURE   STUDY 

OUTLINE  FOR  STUDY 

1.  Description:  — 

Stem.  —  Show  how  it  differs  from  that  of  small  grain  and 
corn. 

Leaves.  —  Pinnate,  leaflets  odd  in  number,  dark  green, 
smooth,  hairy,  or  rough. 

Flowers.  —  Several  in  a  bunch;  calyx  and  corolla  five- 
lobed ;  anthers  five,  yellow,  large,  grown  together ;  one 
pistil.  Compare  grasses. 

Fruit.  —  A  spherical,  green  berry,  not  edible,  containing 
many  small  seeds. 

Subterranean  stem.  —  Provided  with  scales  here  and  there, 
from  whose  axils  root-like  subterranean  branches  spring. 
These  branches  thicken  at  their  ends  and  form  the  tubers 
commonly  called  potatoes.  The  fact  that  the  tubers  have 
buds,  from  which  leafy  sprouts  grow,  shows  that  the  tubers 
are  thickened  branches  and  not  a  true  fruit.  Potatoes  can 
be  grown  from  seed,  but  plants  and  tubers  are  very  small 
the  first  year.  Gardeners  grow  new  varieties  from  seed. 
The  children  might  grow  potatoes  from  seeds.  Just  cover 
the  seeds  with  soil,  and  keep  the  soil  moist. 

Roots.  —  The  true  roots  are  thin  and  thread-like ;  distin- 
guish them  from  the  underground  branches. 

2.  Wliy  a  very  useful  plant :  — 

a.    It  will  grow  on  almost  any  soil. 

6.  Is  easily  propagated  by  tubers,  which  yield  a  vigorous 
plant  the  first  year. 

c.  The  yield  of  tubers  can  be  increased  by  heaping  earth 
around  the  stems.     By  what  means  do  farmers  do  that  ? 

d.  It  has  developed  many  varieties. 

e.  It  furnishes  wholesome  food  for  man  and  beasts,  but 
is  not  alone  sufficient  as  food  for  man,  because  it  contains 
little  else  than  starch  and  water. 


IN  THE   FIELD  191 

/.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  starch.  Ask  a 
farmer's  wife  how  you  can  make  starch  from  potatoes.  Put 
a  drop  of  potato  juice  on  dark  paper,  and  examine  it  with  a 
good  lens ;  you  will  see  many  of  the  starch  grains.  What 
becomes  of  the  starch  in  the  tuber  which  is  planted  ?  Ex- 
amine such  a  tuber. 

3.  Diseases  and  insect  enemies.  —  The  tubers  in  the  ground 
and  the  foliage  above  the  ground  are  subject  to  several  dis- 
eases, caused  by  microscopic  organism.    About  these  diseases 
consult  your  state  reports.     Its  most  formidable  insect  en- 
emy, the  potato  beetle,  will  form  the  subject  of  one  of  our 
future  lessons.     On  what  could  the  potato  bugs  live,  before 
potatoes  were  planted  in  this  country  ? 

4.  Remarks.  —  The  potato  crop  is  never  a  complete  fail- 
ure.     Since   potatoes   have   been   generally  cultivated,  no 
general  famine  has  occurred  in  western  Europe.    In  former 
centuries  great  famines  were  quite  common.     In  India  and 
in  China  they  are  still  common,  and  a  few  years  ago  even 
Russia  experienced  a  serious  famine.    Why  should  a  failure 
of  crops  cause  a  famine  in  Russia,  when  it  does  not  have 
that  result  in  England,  France,  or  Germany  ? 

§  27.    Concluding  Remarks  on  Cultivated  Plants. 

MATERIAL  :  Show  as  many  of  the  plants  mentioned  below  as  you 
can  procure.  Also  show  the  products  made  from  them,  if  practicable. 

The  cultivated  plants  which  we  have  just  studied  by  no 
means  complete  the  list  of  those  grown  in  this  region.  In 
our  fields  we  also  find  flax,  timothy,  clover,  millet,  and 
perhaps  the  sugar  beet.  Among  the  corn  we  observe  the 
long  vine  and  large  fruit  of  the  pumpkin.  One  of  our 
farmers  who  keeps  bees  has  sown  several  acres  of  buckwheat, 
and  how  busy  the  bees  are  in  that  field !  Some  farmers  cul- 
tivate small  fields  of  beans,  peas,  and  onions,  and  in  warm, 
sheltered  places  the  boys  and  girls  have  their  melon  patches. 


192        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

Now,  if  we  could  only  make  a  journey  to  the  South,  how 
different  the  field,  the  meadows,  the  woods,  and  the  orchards 
would  look  there  !  Instead  of  waving  wheat  fields,  we  should 
see  immense  areas  of  corn,  cotton,  sugar  cane,  and  rice.  Of 
our  well-known  forest  trees  very  few  are  found  there.  In 
the  orchards  grow  the  orange,  the  fig,  the  almond,  and  lus- 
cious raisin  grapes ;  and  rushes  and  grasses  ten  to  forty  feet 
high  form  the  well-known  canebrakes  of  the  swamps.  Could 
we  extend  our  journey  to  the  south  of  Florida,  we  should  be 
in  the  very  tropics,  where  the  pineapple,  the  date  palm, 
the  stately  banana  plant,  and  the  lofty  cocoanut  palm 
greet  us. 

Send  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture  for  a  list  of  Farmers'  Bul- 
letins, and  ask  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Union  Building, 
Washington,  D.  C.,  to  send  you  regularly  the  monthly  list  of  publica- 
tions issued  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  These  lists  are  sent 
free,  and  they  will  tell  you  how  to  secure  many  valuable  publications. 
See  Farmers'  Bulletin :  No.  35,  Potato  Culture ;  No.  39,  Onion  Cult- 
ure;  No.  52,  The  Sugar  Beet;  No.  20,  Washed  Soils.  See  the  Zone 
Map  in  the  Yearbook  of  1894.  The  Yearbooks  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  can  generally  be  secured  through  the  congressman  of  your 
district. 

§  28.   A  Few  Common  Weeds. 

1.  Wild  Mustard.     Brass ica  Sinapistrum. 

2.  Yellow  Foxtail,  Pigeon  Grass.     Setaria  glauca. 

3.  Wild  Oat.     Avena  fatua. 

MATERIAL  :  Whole  plants  of  each  species  in  different  stages  of  de- 
velopment, each  showing  roots  ;  seeds  and  seedlings,  if  possible.  Show 
the  plants  a  day  or  two  before  the  lesson,  and  let  each  pupil  provide 
himself  with  material.  The  children  should  have  observed  the  plants 
for  some  time.  If  wild  mustard  and  wild  oats  are  not  common  in 
your  region,  take  other  weeds  more  common  and  consult  your  state 
reports  about  them.  Touch  briefly  upon  the  weeds  which  were  studied 
before. 

See  Bulletin  No.  34,  Weeds  of  the  Mustard  Family,  Iowa  Experi- 
ment Station. 


IN   THE   FIELD 


198 


1.    The  Wild  Mustard. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  troublesome  weeds  in  some  pa.rts 
of  Minnesota  and  Wisconsin.     It  has  been  introduced  from 


FIG.  40.    WILD  MUSTARD.    Brassica  Sinapistrum. 
Leaves,  seed  pods,  and  flowers.     About  one-half  natural  size. 

Europe.  In  some  Minnesota  counties,  where  flax  has  been 
grown  extensively  or  where  the  farmers  have  been  care- 
less, the  fields  are  infested  with  it  almost  beyond  hope 


194         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

of  eradication.  The  writer  has  seen  fields  which  were 
yellow  with  mustard  flowers,  and  the  owner  with  his  wife 
and  children  had  to  pull  mustard  the  whole  summer  for  five, 
six  years  in  succession,  before  the  pest  was  under  control. 

Description.  —  It  is  a  coarse,  rough,  annual  plant,  resem- 
bling in  general  appearance  the  garden  radish  in  bloom,  but 
has  a  more  irregular  and  branching  root.  The  stem  and 
branches,  which  are  sparsely  clothed  with  leaves,  terminate 
in  heads  of  yellow  flowers,  of  which  the  lower  ones  open 
first.  The  stem  in  the  meanwhile  continues  to  lengthen, 
forming  a  long,  leafless  raceme,  with  knotted  pods  towards 
the  base,  open  flowers  towards  the  summit,  and  a  head  of 
closed  flower  buds  at  the  apex.  The  flowers  are  typical 
of  the  mustard  family.  There  are  four  petals  and  six  sta- 
mens, two  of  which  are  shorter  than  the  other  four.  Com- 
pare the  flowers  of  radishes,  turnips,  and  cabbage.  The 
seeds  are  spherical,  resembling  those  of  the  cabbage,  and 
have  a  harsh,  biting  taste. 

How  disseminated.  —  Wild  mustard  is  often  sown  with  flax- 
seed.  After  it  has  once  appeared  in  a  neighborhood,  the 
seeds  are  scattered  by  the  wind,  by  running  water,  in 
manure,  and  by  threshing  machines. 

How  best  destroyed.  — A  careful  farmer  goes  over  his  fields 
from  time  to  time  and  pulls  up  the  plants  while  in  bloom, 
as  the  yellow  flowers  are  easily  seen.  Thus  he  never  per- 
mits them  to  get  a  hold  and  the  annual  labor  involved  is 
very  light.  After  the  land  becomes  badly  infested,  it  takes 
heroic  pulling.  If  it  can  possibly  be  avoided,  no  grain  con- 
taining mustard  seeds  should  be  sown.  An  ounce  of  preven- 
tion is  always  better  than  a  pound  of  cure. 

2.    The  Yellow  Foxtail,  or  Pigeon  Grass. 

This  grass  is  too  well  known  to  need  any  detailed  descrip- 
tion. It  was  introduced  from  Europe,  and  is  now  common 


IN  THE   FIELD  195 

in  all  our  states.  It  grows  on  broken  soil  in  all  crops  and 
on  stubble.  Small  grain,  if  in  good  condition,  keeps  it 
down ;  in  corn  and  potatoes  it  has  to  be  kept  down  by  culti- 
vation. Its  name  refers  to  the  tawny  yellow  spikes  or  ears. 
Two  other  species  of  foxtail  are  also  common,  both  from 
Europe.  The  cultivated  millet  also  belongs  to  the  foxtail 
grasses. 

3.   Wild  Oats. 

This  weed  is  most  troublesome  from  Minnesota  to  Oregon 
and  California.  The  species  here  referred  to  is  distinguished 
from  cultivated  oats  by  its  usually  larger  size,  earlier  and 
irregular  ripening.  Each  grain  falls  out  as  soon  as  it  is 
ripe,  and  the  first  and  second  floret  are  each  provided  with 
a  strong,  twisted,  and  bent  awn.  The  skin  or  glume  enclosing 
the  grain  is  hairy  below  the  middle,  usually  nearly  black  at 
maturity,  and  harder  and  tougher  than  that  of  cultivated 
oats.  The  grain  itself  is  much  lighter  than  the  cultivated 
varieties  of  white  oats.  Compare  cultivated  oats. 

It  is  most  troublesome  in  oat  crops,  because  it  crowds  out 
the  true  oats  and  reduces  the  value  of  the  threshed  grain. 
The  stiff,  twisting  awns  sometimes  cause  trouble  by  irritat- 
ing the  nostrils  and  mouths  of  animals. 

How  to  destroy  it.  —  If  a  field  is  not  badly  infested,  it 
may  be  pulled  or  cut  by  hand,  before  it  matures.  No  oats 
should  be  sown  on  such  fields. 

For  cleaning  out  badly  infested  fields,  see  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  28, 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

§  29.  The  Common  Milkweed,  or  Silkweed.  Asdepias 
Cornuti. 

MATERIAL  :  Plants  at  different  stages  of  development,  some  show- 
ing the  perennial  rootstock  ;  several  flowers  for  each  pupil ;  several 
dead  butterflies,  moths,  bees,  wasps,  and  other  insects  with  pollen 
masses  attached  to  their  feet ;  pass  the  insects  around  when  the  fer- 


196        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

tilization  is  explained  ;  pods  and  seeds,  collected  the  previous  season  ; 
flowers  of  carrot,  caraway,  parsley,  parsnip,  and  dill  for  comparison ; 
some  young  milkweeds,  raised  from  seed. 

Every  child  knows  the  milkweed,  or  silkweed.  It  is 
called  milkweed  fron,  the  abundance  of  white  milk  which 
trickles  from  the  plan  when  it  is  wounded.  It  is  also 
called  silkweed  011  account  of  the  long,  white,  silky  hairs 
which  are  attached  to  the  seeds. 

Description.  —  The  stout  stem  generally  rises  from  a 
thick,  running  rootstock,  which  is  buried  deep  in  the 
ground.  It  grows  from  one  to  two  feet  high.  The  oval 
leaves  are  rather  thick,  four  to  eight  inches  long,  and 
minutely  downy  beneath.  The  flowers  have  a  peculiar  dull 
purplish  tinge ;  they  grow  in  umbels,  which  means  that 
the  stalks  of  the  individual  flowers  rise  at  the  same  place 
from  a  common  peduncle  or  stalk.  Other  well-known 
umbel-bearing  plants  are  the  carrot,  parsley,  parsnip,  cara- 
way, and  dill.  The  flowers  of  the  elder  do  not  form  true 
umbels. 

The  flowers  of  the  milkweed  family  have  a  very  compli- 
cated structure,  which  the  children  need  not  study  in  detail. 
It  is  important  that  they  understand  how  the  pollen  masses 
are  transferred  from  one  flower  to  another.  The  teacher  is 
referred  to  Mueller,  "  Fertilization  of  Flowers " ;  Gray's 
"Manual";  and  Britton  and  Brown,  " Illustrated  Flora." 
The  pupils  can  understand  the  following  about  the  structure 
if  they  have  the  material  before  them. 

The  five  lower  lobes  are,  of  course,  the  divisions  of  the 
calyx;  the  five  lobes  next  above  are  the  corolla  lobes.  The 
peculiar  hood-shaped  bodies  with  a  horn  in  the  centre  are 
appendages  to  the  anthers,  whose  united  filaments  form  the 
tube  which  encloses  the  two  ovaries. 

In  the  plants  which  we  have  thus  far  studied,  the  pollen 
consisted  of  very  fine  dust-like  grains.  In  the  milkweeds 


IN  THE   FIELD  197 

it  forms  yellow,  waxy  masses.  On  the  disc  in  the  centre  of 
each  flower,  you  will  notice  five  minute  black  bodies.  Pull 
these  out  with  a  pin.  The  small  yellow  bags  which  come 
out  with  them  are  the  pollen  masses.  The  teacher  should 
see  that  every  pupil  finds  the  different  structures. 

I  will  now  pass  around  to  you  a  number  of  insects  which 
have  peculiar  little  bodies  adhering  to  their  feet,  and  I 
wonder  if  any  of  you  will  be  able  to  identify  these  little 
bodies.  Willie  says  they  are  the  pollen  masses  of  milk- 
weeds, and  that  is  just  what  they  are.  Where  did  the 
insects  get  them  ?  I  caught  these  insects  on  milkweed 
flowers.  What  did  they  do  there?  Look  into  the  little 
hoods ;  some  of  them  are  half  full  of  honey,  and  we  know 
now  what  the  insects  were  after.  In  searching  for  the 
honey,  they  could  not  help  stepping  on  the  little  black 
bodies.  They  stick  to  the  insects'  feet,  are  pulled  out  with 
the  adhering  pollen  masses,  and  the  pollen  masses  are 
broken  and  stripped  off  on  other  flowers.  The  daivs  of 
insects  are  the  only  means  by  which  the  pollen  of  milkweed  can 
be  transferred  from  one  flower  to  another.  This  shows  that 
the  milkweeds  are  highly  specialized  for  insect-fertilization. 

Scientific  investigators  have  found  that  it  is  impossible 
for  a  milkweed  flower  to  fertilize  itself.  Why  could  the 
wind  or  the  hairs  and  wings  of  insects  not  transfer  this 
pollen  ?  Place  some  fresh  milkweed  flowers  where  house 
flies  and  ants  can  get  at  them,  and  observe  what  happens. 

Besides  the  common  milkweed,  which  grows  everywhere 
in  rich  fields,  several  other  species  are  not  at  all  rare.  The 
most  conspicuous  one  is  the  Butterfly  Weed,*-4«efepfa«  tube- 
rosa.  Its  flowers  are  of  a  beautiful  bright  orange,  and  the 
plant  deserves  to  be  cultivated.  It  has  no  milky  juice. 

Another  common  form  is  the  Swamp  Milkweed,  Asclepias 
incarnata,  of  wet  places,  and  with  bright  purple  flowers. 
Some  milkweeds  have  greenish  flowers,  but  all  have  their 


198        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

flowers  constructed  on  the  same  plan,  by  which  they  can  at 
once  be  recognized. 

What  insects  have  you  found  on  the  flowers  of  milk- 
weeds ?  How  many  of  you  have  ever  found  caterpillars 
with  black  and  yellow  stripes  on  milkweeds  ?  They  are  the 
larvae  of  the  large  and  very  common  Monarch  Butterfly. 

The  seeds.  — Find  by  actual  count  how  many  flowers  there 
are  on  one  plant.  You  will  find  that  only  a  few  of  these 
are  fertilized  and  develop  seeds. 

If  you  are  a  superficial  observer,  you  will  probably  say, 
"  Well,  now,  that  intricate  contrivance  for  insect-fertiliza- 
tion is  not  very  successful  after  all"! "  But  if  you  will  now 
take  the  trouble  and  also  count  the  number  of  seeds  in  a 
pod,  and  remember  that  from  two  to  six  pods  are  produced 
on  one  plant,  you  will  be  compelled  to  admit  that  insect- 
fertilization  in  milkweeds  is  eminently  successful.  From 
four  hundred  to  fifteen  hundred  seeds  seems  sufficient  for 
one  plant.  There  are  two  ovaries  in  each  flower.  Why 
could  not  every  one  of  them  develop  into  a  full-sized  seed 
pod  ?  Of  what  possible  use  can  the  large  number  of  flowers 
be  to  the  plant  if  only  a  few  produce  seeds  ?  Imagine 
yourself  a  bee  and  looking  for  milkweed  honey. 

Dissemination  of  seeds.  —  It  is  not  enough  that  a  plant 
should  produce  seeds ;  these  seeds  must  be  scattered  in  some 
way,  for  if  they  all  dropped  near  the  parent  plant  and  re- 
mained there,  they  would  perish  for  lack  of  space.  Examine 
a  ripe  milkweed  seed  and  see  if  you  can  tell  what  happens 
when  the  pods  burst.  Let  the  children  describe  the  struct- 
ure and  dissemination  of  these  seeds.  Why  could  they  not 
be  heavy  like  nuts  and  acorns  ?  How  are  heavy  seeds  dis- 
seminated ? 

The  common  milkweed  is  sometimes  troublesome  in 
fields.  If  you  know  the  life  history  of  the  plant,  you 
should  be  able  to  suggest  a  remedy.  Young  milkweed 


OF  THB  \ 

UNIVERSITY) 

IN  THE  FIELI)V^(  199 

plants  are  recommended  by  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  as  a  good  pot  herb. 

As  the  milkweeds  are  prolific  seed-bearers,  and  also  spread 
and  increase  by  means  of  rootstoclcs  which  remain  alive  from 
year  to  year,  they  appear  wdl  qualified  to  compete  with  other 
plants,  and  also  to  hold  their  own  against  man.  Of  what 
advantage  is  the  double  mode  of  propagation  to  a  plant? 
How  long  would  it  take  a  rootstock  to  creep  fifty  miles 
under  ground  ?  Could  it  cross  a  river  ?  Some  plants  have 
almost  become  extinct  near  our  towns  and  villages.  Do 
you  think  the  milkweeds  will  soon  be  amongst  them  ? 

Insects  seen  in  Fields 

If  we  found  very  many  birds  that  are  undoubtedly  the 
farmer's  friends,  we  must  say  that  many  insects  are  amongst 
his  worst  enemies.  We  shall  now  study  a  few  of  the  com- 
mon insects  which  we  have  observed  in  fields.  We  will 
begin  with  the  prettiest  of  them,  the  butterflies. 

§  30.   The  White  Cabbage  Butterflies. 

MATERIAL  :  Live  butterflies  on  a  spray  of  weeds  in  a  glass  jar ; 
caterpillars  at  various  stages  of  growth,  feeding  on  cabbage  leaves  ; 
pieces  of  cabbage  leaves  with  butterfly  eggs  on  the  lower  sides.  It 
is  not  important  that  the  children  should  distinguish  the  native  species 
from  the  imported,  nor  the  males  from  the  females.  The  children 
should  have  observed  the  insects  in  all  their  stages. 

There  are  two  very  common  species  of  cabbage  butterflies ; 
both  have  white  wings  marked  with  black  and  more  or  less 
tinged  with  yellow.  On  the  first  warm  days  of  spring  we 
see  them  flying  about.  "They  are  indeed  harbingers  of 
spring,  and  they  delight  the  eyes  of  all  observers  so  much 
more  because  insects  of  all  kinds  have  been  absent  for  the 
last  six  months.  These  butterflies,  though  apparently  such 
frail  objects,  can  stand  a  great  deal  of  ill  treatment  at  this 


200         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

period.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  them  frozen  and  appar- 
ently dead,  yet  they  recover  as  soon  as  the  rays  of  the  sun 
warm  them  back  to  life"  (Lugger).  Later  in  the  season 
these  white  butterflies  often  become  very  numerous. 

You  will  observe  that  they  use  all  six  feet  for  walking, 
while  some  butterflies  use  only  four.  They  have  four 
wings,  to  which  the  different  colors  are  given  by  delicate 
scales  which  easily  rub  off.  From  the  head  two  organs 
stand  out  like  horns ;  these  are  the  feelers,  and  the  insects 
use  them  to  touch  objects  as  we  use  our  fingers.  You  can- 
not fail  to  observe  the  large  eyes,  by  means  of  which  they 
generally  see  a  boy  before  he  is  quite  near  enough  to  catch 
them.  But  where  is  this  mouth?  If  you  look  closely  just 
below  the  butterfly's  head,  you  will  observe  an  organ  coiled 
like  a  watch  spring.  On  uncoiling  it  with  a  pin,  you  will 
find  it  possessed  of  considerable  length.  This  long  sucking- 
tube  is  the  principal  part  of  a  butterfly's  mouth.  If  you 
have  not  seen  how  they  use  it,  you  must  watch  them  on  the 
flowers.  Most  butterflies  live  on  the  honey  of  flowers,  but 
they  are  often  seen  in  great  numbers  drinking  water  on 
moist  ground. 

Life  history. — The  cabbage  butterflies  lay  their  eggs  on 
the  lower  side  of  rutabaga  and  cabbage  leaves,  where  they 
can  be  found  on  close  inspection.  They  look  like  small 
yellowish  pyramids  about  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  long. 
They  are  not  found  in  bunches  like  mosquito  eggs.  The 
eggs  are  also  laid  on  peppergrass,  shepherd's  purse,  and 
other  weeds,  but  only  such  plants  are  selected  as  the  cater- 
pillars will  eat. 

The  caterpillars.  —  The  eggs  hatch  within  a  few  days,  and 
the  first  meal  of  the  very  small,  greenish-yellow  caterpillars 
are  the  shells  of  their  eggs ;  those  finished,  they  proceed  to 
the  cabbage  leaves.  The  appetite  of  most  healthy  children 
is  so  good  that  they  can  eat  from  four  to  six  times  a  day, 


IN   THE   FIELD  201 

but  the  young  caterpillar's  appetite  is  so  great  that  it  must 
spend  most  of  its  time  in  eating.  As  caterpillars  dwell 
literally  on  their  bread,  and  eat  so  voraciously,  they  must 
grow  very  fast.  Within  a  few  weeks  they  are  full  grown, 
and  each  one  then  weighs  probably  about  one  hundred 
times  as  much  as  it  did  when  it  left  the  egg.  Would  the 
biggest  cow  weigh  as  much  as  one  hundred  calves  ?  You 
can  find  out  by  observation  within  about  how  many  days  a 
caterpillar  eats  an  amount  of  food  which  weighs  as  much  as 
itself.  If  a  man  ate  as  much  in  proportion  to  his  weight 
as  a  caterpillar,  how  many  oxen  could  he  eat  up  in  a  year  ? 

The  chrysalis.  —  You  know,  from  observation,  that  what 
we  have  said  about  the  caterpillar's  appetite  is  entirely 
true  ;  nevertheless,  there  comes  a  time  when  these  voracious 
eaters  seem  to  get  sick.  They  stop  eating,  and  move  about 
restlessly.  This  is  a  sign  that  they  are  about  to  change 
into  the  pupa,  or  chrysalid  state.  They  prefer  a  place 
where  they  are  sheltered  from  rain  and  snow,  and  for  this 
reason  the  chrysalides  are  frequently  found  under  the  top 
boards  of  fences,  where  they  pass  the  winter.  From  these 
chrysalides  the  butterflies  emerge  on  the  first  warm  days  of 
spring.  In  early  summer  they  frequently  pass  through  the 
chrysalis  stage  on  their  food  plant.  The  caterpillars  of 
this  butterfly,  as  those  of  all  others,  moult  several  times 
before  they  attain  full  growth.  When  a  caterpillar  is  ready 
to  moult,  the  skin  breaks  open  on  the  back,  and  the  cater- 
pillar works  itself  out  of  it.  Many  caterpillars  eat  their 
cast-off  skin.  The  processes  of  moulting,  of  changing  into 
a  pupa,  the  emerging  of  the  butterflies  from  the  chrysalides, 
should  be  observed  by  the  children  on  specimens  raised  by 
themselves,  and  they  may  then  describe  the  process  in  full. 

Remedies.  —  The  best  friends  of  the  farmer  and  gardener 
are  insect-eating  bi/ds  and  mammals,  and  those  we  should 
protect. 


202        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

In  order  to  show  how  many  insects  are  destroyed  by 
birds  and  shrews,  Professor  Otto  Lugger  had  the  position 
of  five  hundred  chrysalides  marked,  on  October  1,  at  St. 
Anthony,  Minn.  Only  a  few  insect-eating  birds  remain 
in  Minnesota  during  the  winter;  but  these,  together  with 
shrews,  had  reduced  the  original  five  hundred  chrysalides  to 
two  hundred  and  seventeen,  by  April  2.  About  the  first  of 
April,  the  migratory  birds  return  to  Minnesota,  and  on  May 
1,  only  forty-three  chrysalides  were  left. 

Some  very  small  wasps  lay  their  eggs  into  the  caterpillars, 
or  the  chrysalides,  and  the  little  maggots  eat  their  host 
alive. 

If  you  have  observed  caterpillars  at  all  closely,  you  must 
have  seen  that  they  bite  off  pieces  of  leaves,  and  do  not 
merely  suck  the  juice;  they  can  therefore  be  easily  poisoned 
by  Paris  green  and  London  purple.  A  little  boiled  flour 
or  stale  milk  should  be  added  to  the  liquid  containing  the 
poison.  These  poisons  cannot  be  used  after  the  cabbage 
begins  to  head. 

See  First  Annual  Report  of  Minnesota  Entomologist. 

§  31.  The  Monarch.  Anosia  plexippus  of  Comstock's 
"  Manual " ;  Danais  Archippus  of  French's  "  Butterflies  of 
the  Eastern  United  States." 

MATERIAL  :  A  sufficient  number  of  adult  insects,  chrysalides,  cater- 
pillars, and  eggs.  Observed  outdoors  :  Large  swarms  of  monarchs  in 
late  summer  and  early  fall,  caterpillars  and  eggs  on  milkweeds.  Call 
attention  to  the  pollen  masses  often  attached  to  the  claws  of  butterflies. 

This  is  perhaps  the  most  common  and  conspicuous  but- 
terfly in  the  Eastern  and  Northern  states.  In  August  and 
September  they  often  flock  together  in  large  swarms,  and 
thousands  of  them  may  then  be  found  clinging  to  the  leaves 
of  one  tree.  On  a  Sunday  morning,  early  in  September, 
1896,  the  city  of  St.  Paul  swarmed  with  them.  They  came 


IN  THE   FIELD  203 

in  the  forenoon,  and  most  of  them  had  left  the  next  day. 
It  is  very  probable  that  they  winter  in  the  South,  in  the 
adult  state,  migrate  North  in  spring,  and  return  to  the 
South  in  autumn. 

OUTLINE  FOR  LESSON 

Adult.  —  Upper  surface  of  wings  tawny  red,  veins  black, 
black  border  of  wings,  containing  two  rows  of  white  spots ; 
under  side  paler  than  the  upper. 


FIG.  41.    MONARCH  BUTTKRFLY.     Anosia  plexippus. 

Somewhat  reduced.     After  Comstock.     By  permission  of  the  Comstock 

Publishing  Company. 

Eggs  placed  on  lower  side  of  milkweed  leaves,  about  one- 
sixteenth  of  an  inch  long ;  first  white,  then  yellow,  finally, 
dull  gray. 

The  larva,  or  caterpillar,  hatches  in  about  a  week,  first 
eats  its  eggshell,  is  about  one  and  three-fourths  inches  long 
when  mature;  head  yellowish,  body  marked  with  transverse 
stripes  of  black,  yellow,  and  white;  two  black  horns  pointing 
backward  and  two  pointing  forward. 

The  chrysalis  is  about  an  inch  long,  bright  green,  dotted 
with  gold,  a  band  of  golden  dots  extending  more  than  half 
around  the  body.  It  will  probably  be  easiest  for  teachers 


204        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

and  pupils  to  raise  the  chrysalides  from  caterpillars,  which 
are  very  easily  found  on  milkweeds. 

The  monarchs  hibernate  in  the  adult  state.  In  the 
extreme  south  they  fly  all  winter.  In  what  state  do  the 
cabbage  butterflies  hibernate? 

Let  the  children  raise  monarchs,  and  let  them  watch  and 
describe  the  different  stages  of  development.  Try  to  follow 
up  the  life  history  of  several  caterpillars ;  feed  them  with 
the  plants  on  which  you  find  them.  Are  caterpillars  at  all 
particular  about  their  food  plants  ?  See  if  you  can  make 
the  monarch  caterpillars  eat  anything  else  than  milkweed 
leaves. 

For  more  information  about  butterflies,  see  French,  Butterflies  of 
the  Eastern  United  States.  For  insects  in  general,  see  Comstock, 
Manual  for  the  Study  of  Insects.  Scudder  gives  a  very  interesting 
account  of  the  life  history  of  the  monarch  in  his  little  book  :  Life  of  a 
Butterfly. 

§  32.   The  Honeybee. 

MATERIAL  :  Some  comb  honey.  Ask  a  bee-keeper  to  place  a  few 
workers,  drones,  and  queens  for  you  in  small  bottles  or  tubes  ;  procure 
from  him  different  kinds  of  brood  cells,  some  larvae  and  eggs.  If  no 
bee-keeper  lives  near,  catch  some  working  bees  on  flowers,  and  use 
the  cells,  eggs,  and  larvse  of  the  common  wasp  to  illustrate  how  mem- 
bers of  the  bee  family  raise  their  young.  Any  boy  can  find  these 
open  wasp  cones  behind  shutters  and  boards.  Throw  hot  water  on 
them  after  dark.  Previously  observed  :  Bees  on  flowers  and  bees 
swarming.  Make  a  list  of  flowers  honeybees  visit ;  also  of  those  they 
do  not  visit. 

Who  of  us  does  not  associate  the  buzzing  of  honeybees  with 
the  flowers,  blue  skies,  and  gentle  breezes  of  those  happy 
summers  of  boyhood  or  girlhood,  when  life  was  still  a  beauti- 
ful poem  to  us,  and  when  our  hearts  were  even  lighter  than 
the  wings  of  the  bees  and  the  butterflies  that  hummed  and 
gambolled  about  us?  How  the  little  child,  scarcely  able  to 
walk,  will  tumble  after  the  first  butterfly  of  spring!  How 


IN   THE  FIELD 


205 


interested  he  is,  if  you  show  him  a  bee  ou  a  flower  and  tell 
him  that  this  little  creature  gathers  the  honey  he  likes  so 
well!  He  will  never  forget  what  you  told  him,  and  will 
want  to  know  more.  And  we  older  boys  still  see  in  our 
imagination  the  big  hollow  tree,  the  forest,  the  streams,  the 
hills  that  we  saw,  when  we  went  bee-hunting  long,  long  ago. 
The  honeybee  is  one  of  the  very  few  insects  which  man 
has,  so  to  speak,  domesticated ;  but  when  this  was  done,  we 
do  not  know.  Into  this  country  the  honeybees  were  intro- 
duced from  Europe,  probably  not  so  very  long  after  the 


FIG.  42.    THE  GERMAN,  BLACK,  OB  BROWN  BEE. 

a,  drone;  b,  queen;  c,  worker;  d,  a  piece  of  comb  with  some  open  and 
some  closed  cells ;  e,  a  queen  cell.    All  somewhat  reduced. 


first  permanent  settlements.  In  the  large  forests,  where 
the  old  hollow  trees  offered  them  so  many  natural  hives, 
many  escaped  swarms  returned  to  a  wild  state.  These  wild 
bees  slowly  advanced  westward  before  the  White  Man,  and 
about  the  close  of  the  last  century  they  had  reached  the 
Mississippi.  It  is  said  that  the  Indians  called  them  "  Eng- 
lish flies,"  and  hated  them  as  the  advance  guard  of  the 
White  Man  himself.  They  have  now  spread  over  the  con- 
tinent, and  are  found  wherever  conditions  permit  their  ex- 
istence. 


206         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

There  are  three  kinds  of  bees  in  each  hive.  A  colony  in 
good  condition  contains  one  queen,  from  thirty  to  forty 
thousand  workers,  and  generally  a  small  number  of  drones, 
perhaps  about  a  hundred. 

Function  of  the  ivorkers.  — •  That  bees  gather  the  nectar,  or 
honey,  from  flowers  by  means  of  their  sucking  tongue,  you 
have  often  observed.  This  tongue  is  longer  and  can  be 
better  seen  in  bumblebees  than  in  the  honeybee.  If  you 
watch  a  bumblebee  on  a  cool  day,  or  late  in  the  season, 
you  can  best  observe  its  work,  because  it  is  not  so  quick 
then  as  on  warm  days.  Bees  prefer  open  flowers,  such  as 
linden  and  buckwheat.  In.  flowers  which,  like  the  red 
clover,  form  a  deep  tube,  honeybees  cannot  reach  the  nec- 
tar and  must  leave  it  for  the  longer  lips,  or  tongues,  of  the 
bumblebees.  Can  honeybees  reach  the  nectar  in  white 
clover  ?  The  nectar  is  swallowed  when  gathered,  and  stored 
in  a  honey  sac  within  the  bee's  body.  On  coming  home, 
the  bee  drops  it  into  a  cell.  But  this  is  only  the  raw  prod- 
uct ;  it  is  watery,  and  often  has  an  unpleasant  flavor  and 
odor.  By  the  incessant  buzzing  of  their  wings,  the  bees 
force  currents  of  air  through  the  hive,  and  by  this  draught 
and  the  heat  of  their  bodies  evaporate  the  water  in  the 
honey  down  to  ten  or  twelve  per  cent.  Sometimes  the  bees 
keep  up  this  buzzing  all  night.  The  unpleasant  flavors  and 
odors  are  also  more  or  less  driven  off,  and  formic  acid,  which 
the  bees  can  secrete  by  means  of  glands  in  their  head,  is 
added  to  the  honey  as  a  preservative.  After  the  honey  is 
thus  fully  ripened,  and  has  been  stored  in  cells  near  the 
brood,  each  cell  is  sealed  with  a  waxen  cap.  Ants  also 
secrete  formic  acid.  Press  your  hand  on  a  number  of  large 
ants  moving  about  on  their  pile,  then  raise  your  hand  to 
your  nose  and  you  will  smell  the  formic  acid. 

Gathering  of  pollen.  —  We  cannot  see  the  honey  with 
which  a  bee  is  loaded  on  its  home  journey,  but  we  have 


IN  THE   FIELD  207 

frequently  observed  that  small  yellow  or  reddish  pellets 
adhere  to  the  legs  of  bees,  giving  them  the  appearance  of 
wearing  short  but  rather  wide  trousers.  These  pellets  are 
pollen,  which  the  bees  collect  on  their  hairs  as  they  creep 
over  and  into  flowers.  They  brush  it  off  as  they  go  along 
and  collect  it  in  a  little  depression  on  their  hind  legs. 
When  the  field  workers  come  home,  they  simply  drop  the 
pellets  into  cells  and  let  the  other  bees  pack  them  down 
by  kneading  them  with  their  mandibles,  or  outer  jaws. 
This  pollen,  often  called  beebread,  mixed  with  honey  and 
water  is  fed  to  the  brood. 

The  making  of  wax.  —  The  little  yellow  pellets  about 
which  we  have  just  spoken  must  not  be  mistaken  for  wax. 
The  bees  do  not  find  wax  ready  in  the  flowers.  The  wax  is 
made  from  honey,  and  the  process  takes  place  in  the  bodies 
of  bees,  the  wax  appearing  in  little  scales  between  the  seg- 
ments of  the  abdomen.  It  is,  so  to  speak,  sweated  out  in 
liquid  form,  but  soon  hardens  on  exposure  to  the  air.  The 
bees  pluck  out  the  scales  with  their  legs  and  mould  them 
into  any  desired  shape  by  means  of  their  mandibles. 

Propolis.  —  This  is  a  brownish  substance  commonly  called 
"  bee  glue."  The  bees  gather  it  from  the  buds  and  wounds 
of  trees;  they  carry  it  just  as  they  do  pollen.  It  is  used  to 
fasten  the  combs,  to  make  the  opening  to  the  hive  smaller, 
to  fill  up  cracks  or  crevices,  and  to  varnish  the  whole  inside 
of  their  home. 

When  a  large  brood  is  in  the  hive,  some  bees  make  fre- 
quent trips  to  streams  and  pools  to  procure  water,  which  is 
needed  in  mixing  the  food  for  the  brood. 

The  structure  of  combs  and  cells. — Bees  construct  four  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  cells :  cells  for  breeding  workers,  cells  for 
breeding  drones,  cells  for  breeding  queens,  and  cells  for 
storing  honey. 

If  the  teacher  has  secured  these  different  cells  from  a 


208         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

bee-keeper,  the  children  should  learn  to  distinguish  them ; 
if  that  material  was  not  procurable,  confine  the  description 
to  the  cells  of  the  honeycomb,  which  can  be  bought  in  the 
market.  That  all  the  different  cells  are  built  by  the  work- 
ers needs  scarcely  to  be  mentioned. 

But  the  work  mentioned  thus  far  does  not  complete  the 
duties  of  the  workers.  They  also  defend  their  hives  against 
robber  bees,  which  come  to  steal  their  supplies.  At  a  time 
when  there  are  but  few  flowers,  the  bees  of  strong  colonies 
frequently  attack  those  of  weak  colonies,  carry  off  their 
stores,  and  kill  thousands  of  the  bees. 

As  the  different  duties  of  worker  bees  are  not  equally  diffi- 
cult, the  oldest  bees  perform  the  more  difficult  and  dangerous 
duties.  The  young  bees  work  in  the  hive  for  about  two 
weeks ;  after  that  time  they  also  fly  out  for  field  work.  In 
field  work  the  bees  are  exposed  to  winds,  birds,  and  other 
enemies;  thousands  of  them  rip  their  wings  and  cannot 
return  home.  -So  great  and  numerous  are  those  dangers, 
that  the  age  of  a  honeybee  is  not  more  than  about  three 
weeks  during  the  busy  season ;  while  wintering,  bees  may 
live  for  eight  months. 

Duties  of  the  queen. — There  is  only  one  queen  in  each 
hive,  and  she  is  really  the  mother  of  the  whole  colony. 
Her  body,  especially  the  abdomen,  or  posterior  part,  is 
longer  than  that  of  a  worker.  She  ^does  not  do  any  work 
in  the  hive  and  never  flies  out  to  gather  honey,  because  her 
weak  mouth-parts  and  weak  wings  unfit  her  for  that  kind 
of  work ;  nor  does  she  help  to  defend  the  hive,  although  she 
has  a  long  and  powerful  sting. 

Her  only  duty  is  to  enable  herself,  by  taking  plenty  of 
the  most  substantial  bee  food,  to  lay  large  numbers  of  eggs. 
Under  specially  favorable  conditions,  she  will  lay  four 
thousand  eggs  in  twenty-four  hours,  and  about  one  hundred 
thousand  in  one  season.  A  queen's  life  is  from  four  to  five 


IN  THE   FIELD  209 

years,  and  in  that  time  she  can  lay  about  half  a  million  of 
eggs. 

Development  of  the  brood.  —  According  to  the  cells  into 
which  the  eggs  are  placed,  and  according  to  the  food  given 
the  larvae,  the  eggs  will  develop  into  workers,  drones,  or 
queens.  The  richest  food  is  given  to  the  larvae  in  the  queen 
cells.  Eggs  in  the  worker  cells  hatch  when  three  days  old ; 
after  five  days,  the  white,  grub-like  larva  pupates  in  its  cell. 
The  bees  cover  the  cell  with  wax  and  the  larva  adds  a 
little  silk  on  the  inside.  Thirteen  days  later,  the  pupa  has 
changed  into  the  perfect  bee,  which  bites  its  way  through 
the  cell  cover.  Queens  develop  from  the  egg  into  the  per- 
fect insect  in  fifteen  and  one-half  days ;  drones,  in  twenty- 
four  days. 

The  drones.  —  The  queen  is  the  only  female  bee  in  the 
hive ;  the  workers  are  dwarfed  females,  and,  under  ordinary 
conditions,  do  not  lay  eggs;  the  drones  are  the  male  bees. 
They  are  larger  than  the  workers,  but  have  no  sting.  When 
a  queen  is  from  five  to  nine  days  old,  she  leaves  the  hive  to 
meet  the  drones  high  in  the  air.  Mating  with  the  queen  and 
fertilizing  her  is  the  only  duty  of  the  drones.  They  do  no  work 
in  the  hive  nor  in  the  field  to  benefit  the  bee  state.  In  the  fall, 
when  there  are  no  longer  any  queens  to  be  fertilized,  the 
drones  are  expelled  from  the  hives  or  are  killed  by  the 
workers. 

From  what  we  have  learned,  it  is  clear  that  there  exists  a 
division  of  labor  in  the  bee  state;  in  which  respect  the  beehive 
may  be  compared  to  a  community  of  human  beings. 

The  swarming  of  bees  may  be  compared  to  the  founding 
ofneiv  colonies  by  men. 

When  the  number  of  bees  in  a  hive  has  increased  so 
much  that  they  are  crowded  for  room,  the  workers  begin  to 
build  drone  and  queen  cells.  As  soon  as  one  of  the  queen 
cells  is  capped,  the  old  queen  becomes  very  restless,  and, 


210         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

with  a  portion  of  the  workers,  leaves  the  hive,  generally 
before  a  young  queen  has  emerged.     This  swarm  generally, 
clusters  on  the  branch  of  some  near  tree,  and  is  there  caught 
by  the  bee-keeper.     If  he  fails  to  be  on  hand,  the  swarm 
will  find  a  new  home  in  a  hollow  tree  or  in  a  rock  crevice. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  honeybees.  The  common 
wild  honeybee  is  the  German,  Black,  or  Brown  Bee.  Other 
varieties  kept  in  this  country  are  the  Italians,  the  Cyprians, 
from  the  island  of  Cyprus,  and  the  Carniolans,  from  the 
Austrian  province  of  Carniola.  Each  variety  has  its  peculiar 
faults  and  merits. 

Conclusion.  —  We  have  now  learned  but  very  little  about 
the  life  of  the  honeybee.  Any  one  who  desires  to  become 
a  practical  bee-keeper  is  referred  to  Benton,  "  The  Honey- 
bee," United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  About  the 
life  of  wasps  and  bumblebees,  see  Comstock's  "  Manual  for 
the  Study  of  Insects  " ;  but  do  not  forget  that  the  best  way 
to  learn  about  nature  is  to  go  to  nature's  own  school. 

A  Few  Injurious  Field  Insects 

The  honeybee  is  a  beneficial  insect,  not  -only  on  account 
of  the  honey  it  produces,  but  also  because  it  fertilizes  many 
flowers,  and  thereby  increases  the  yield  of  fruit  trees  and 
of  many  other  cultivated  plants.  Should  the  two  butter- 
flies we  have  just  studied  be  classified  with  the  beneficial, 
the  injurious,  or  with  those  that  are  neither  beneficial  nor 
injurious  ? 

Butterflies  and  bees  are  typical  insects.  Their  body  con- 
sists of  three  well-marked  divisions,  —  the  head,  the  thorax, 
and  the  abdomen.  Many  insects  have  wings,  which  are 
always  attached  to  the  thorax. 

In  the  insects  which  we  are  now  going  to  study  the 
three  divisions  of  the  body  are  present,  but  are  not  so  well 
marked  as  in  bees  and  butterflies.  Are  they  well  marked 


IN   THE   FIELD  211 

in  ants  ?     Do  insects  have  an  internal  bony  skeleton  ?      Is 
the  outside  of  their  bodies  hard  or  soft  ? 

§  33.    The  Chinch  Bug.     Blyssus  leucopterus. 

MATERIAL  :  A  number  of  bugs  in  different  stages  of  development 
confined  in  a  bottle  with  a  few  blades  of  grass.  By  looking  carefully, 
where  the  grain  stands  thin,  they  can  generally  be  found,  although 
they  may  not  have  attracted  general  attention.  To  show  the  illustra- 
tions and  briefly  to  give  the  life  history  might  be  well  in  districts  that 
are  likely  to  be  infested  in  the  future ;  otherwise  omit  the  lesson  where 
the  bugs  cannot  be  found. 

The  chinch  bug  is  a  small  insect,  only  a  little  over  an 
eighth  of  an  inch  long.  Its  general  color  is  almost  black, 
but  the  wing  covers  are  white,  marked  with  two  black  spots 
and  a  Y-shaped  line.  They  have  the  disagreeable  odor  of 
bedbugs.  Chinch  bugs  have  a  sucking  mouth,  and  live  on 
the  sap  of  green  grain  and  different  cultivated  and  wild 
grasses.  They  prefer  wheat.  After  the  small  grain  is  cut, 
they  migrate  to  the  cornfields. 

They  winter  in  the  adult  state  under  straw,  weeds,  brush, 
and  all  kinds  of  rubbish.  In  spring  the  reviving  bugs  move 
to  the  nearest  food  plants,  and  deposit  their  eggs  on  or  near 
the  roots.  One  female  can  produce  over  two  hundred  eggs, 
and  there  are  at  least  two  broods  in  a  season.  Plants  which 
are  attacked  by  many  bugs  soon  wilt  and  die.  It  has  been 
estimated  that  in  1887  the  six  central  grain-producing  states 
lost  six  hundred  million  dollars  through  chinch-bug  ravages, 
and  in  the  same  year  Minnesota  alone  lost  over  six  million 
dollars. 

The  original  home  of  the  chinch  bug  was  probably  on  the 
shores  of  the  Atlantic,  where  it  fed  on  wild  grasses ;  but 
since  the  country  has  been  put  under  cultivation,  it  has 
spread  enormously,  and  is  now  found  from  New  Brunswick 

Observations.  —  Earthworms,  their  castings  and  holes,  leaves  and  grasses 
pulled  into  the  ground  by  them. 


212         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

to   Florida,   and   from   the   Atlantic   coast   to   the    Eocky 
Mountains. 

Remedies.  —  All  kinds  of  rubbish  should  be  burned  in  the 
fall,  after  the  bugs  have  taken  up  their  winter  quarters. 
In  cool  and  wet  summers  the  bugs  do  not  thrive,  but  are 
apt  to  be  very  numerous  under  reversed  conditions. 

For  more  detailed  information,  see  your  State  Reports  and  Bulletin 
No.  17  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  by  L.  O.  Howard. 
For  insects  injurious  in  your  vicinity,  correspond  with  your  state 
entomologist,  and  see  his  reports. 

§  34.    The  Potato  Beetle.     Doryphora  decemlineata. 
MATERIAL  :  Beetles,  larvae,  eggs;  all  on  potato  leaves  in  a  bottle; 
pupse  ;  defoliated  potato  stalks. 

History.  —  This  insect,  often  called  in  books  the  Colorado 
Potato  Beetle,  had  its  original  home  near  the  foothills  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains  in  the  region  of  Colorado.  Here  it 
fed  on  a  wild  plant  of  the  nightshade  family,  to  which  also 
the  potato  and  tomato  belong.  When  the  railroad  reached 
that  region  and  settlements  sprang  up,  the  beetle  discov- 
ered the  potato  plant,  found  the  leaves  very  much  to  its 
taste,  and  soon  acquired  the  habit  of  feeding  on  them. 
About  1859  it  had  become  a  pest  in  its  native  home,  and 
began  its  march  eastward  across  the  continent,  at  first 
advancing  about  fifty  miles  a  year,  but  more  rapidly  later ; 
and  in  1874  it  had  reached  the  Atlantic  coast.  A  few  years 
ago  it  was  even  accidentally  introduced  into  southwestern 
Germany ;  but,  thanks  to  the  radical  and  scientific  measures 
adopted  against  it,  its  complete  extermination  was  soon 
accomplished.  Why  were  European  insect  pests  not  exter- 
minated in  this  country  ? 

Description.  —  Every  farmer  knows  the  beetle,  or  bug, 
and  you  can  easily  describe  the  different  stages  from  the 
material  before  you. 

Observations.  —  Different  soils:  loarn,  sand,  clay,  humus. 


IN  THE   FIELD  213 

Its  life  history  is  briefly  as  follows  :  There  are  three  broods 
in  Minnesota,  and  probably  also  in  the  states  in  the  same 
latitude.  The  last  brood  hibernates  in  the  ground  Jn  the 
adult  form.  Early  in  spring  the  beetles  fly  about,  and 
invade  new  territory ;  and  as  soon  as  the  first  potato  plants 
appear,  they  deposit  their  dark  yellow  eggs  on  the  under 
side  of  the  leaves  near  the  tips.  In  about  four  or  five 
weeks  the  larvae  are  full  grown,  and  descend  into  the 
ground  for  pupation ;  and  in  a  short  time  the  adult  beetles 
emerge  from  the  pupae,  and  start  a  second  brood. 

Remedies.  —  Kill  or  poison  all  the  beetles  to  be  found  in 
early  spring.  A  little  Paris  green  or  London  purple  applied 
early  and  repeatedly  will  kill  most  of  the  bugs  that  have 
wintered.  Of  course,  all  farmers  should  do  that.  As  one 
female  beetle  lays  about  five  hundred  eggs,  you  can  figure 
out  what  its  progeny  would  be  for  three  broods,  supposing 
that  one-half  of  the  eggs  develop  into  female  beetles.  Your 
figures  will  show  that  one  lazy  and  careless  farmer  can 
fairly  well  keep  up  the  stock  for  a  whole  county. 

§  35.    The  Grasshoppers  or  Locusts. 

MATERIAL  :  A  number  of  large  grasshoppers  in  bottles  ;  young  at 
different  stages  of  development ;  egg  masses  ;  plants  injured  by  grass- 
hoppers. It  is  not  necessary  that  the  children  should  distinguish  the 
different  species  of  grasshoppers. 

There  are  so  many  species  of  grasshoppers  in  the  United 
States  that  no  attempt  can  be  made  here  to  distinguish 
them.  For  the  several  kinds  of  injurious  locusts,  see  your 
State  Reports,  and  C.  V.  Riley,  "  Destructive  Locusts,"  Bul- 
letin No.  25,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

One  of  the  most  common  species  is  the  red-legged  locust, 
which  measures  about  one  and  one-quarter  inches  from  the 
head  to  the  end  of  the  wings.  This  species  is  not  migratory, 

Are  the  fields  in  your  vicinity  well  cultivated? 


214 


HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 


but  is  occasionally  injurious  when  it  appears  in  large  num- 
bers. Of  the  migratory  locusts,  the  Eocky  Mountain  locust 
is  probably  the  most  destructive.  Several  times  they  have 
almost  caused  a  famine  in  a  number  of  our  Western  states. 
If  your  region  was  ever  infested,  let  some  old  settler  tell 
you  his  grasshopper  reminiscences,  which  will  greatly  inter- 
est the  children. 

The   permanent   home   of  these  grasshoppers  is  in  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  and  from  that  region  they  at  times  mi- 


FIG.  43.    KOCKY  MOUNTAIN  LOCUST. 

Showing  how  the  eggs  are  laid  in  the  ground.  Below,  an  egg  mass  taken 
out  of  the  ground  ;  to  the  right,  five  detached  eggs.  Natural  size. 
After  Riley. 

grate  in  immense  swarms  as  far  east  as  Lake  Winnipeg, 
Minnesota,  Iowa,  and  Missouri ;  the  frequency  of  their  rav- 
ages increasing  as  one  approaches  their  permanent  breed- 
ing country.  They  do  not,  however,  obtain  a  permanent 
foothold  away  from  their  Rocky  Mountain  home,  although 
they  do  deposit  eggs  and  appear  in  reduced  numbers  for 

Observations.  —  Does  it  pay  the  farmer  to  keep  his  fields  clean  of  weeds  ? 


'     IN   THE   FIELD  215 

several  years  after  they  have  infested  a  region.  The  mo- 
tive which  compels  them  to  move  is  probably  scarcity  of 
food  in  their  breeding  country.  The  first  swarms  eat  the 
more  palatable  green  young  grain ;  if  they  do  not  fly  off  or 
if  other  swarms  follow  them,  the  insects  will  eat  everything 
green  on  the  face  of  the  earth. 

Life  history  and  habits. — The  females  dig  holes  into 
rather  solid  soil ;  closely  cropped  meadows,  fields  covered 
with  grass  or  stubble,  and  roadsides  are  the  preferred  places ; 
and  here  they  can  often  be  found  as  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion. A  female  probably  lays  from  one  hundred  to  one 
hundred  and  fifty  eggs  in  about  three  different  masses.  In 
their  native  home  the  eggs  laid  in  summer  do  not  hatch 
until  the  following  spring,  but  in  warmer  regions  they  often 
hatch  the  same  summer,  and  then  the  young  hoppers  are 
often  destroyed  by  frost  before  they  can  mature.  In  Min- 
nesota, the  eggs  are  laid  in  July  and  August,  and  the  young 
come  out  of  the  ground  the  following  May. 

Habits  of  the  young.  — A  newly  hatched  grasshopper  looks 
very  much  like  its  parents,  but  it  has  no  wings.  The  young 
Kocky  Mountain  hoppers  are  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch 
long.  They  soon  congregate  in  immense  numbers  and  begin 
to  migrate  on  foot,  generally  in  a  south  or  southeasterly  di- 
rection, eating  everything  green  on  their  way,  and  if  food 
becomes  scarce,  the  stronger  ones  eat  their  weaker  brethren. 
When  thus  on  the  march,  they  do  not  hesitate  to  tumble 
down  a  cliff  or  swim  a  wide  river. 

TJte  adult  insects.  —  About  seven  weeks  after  hatching, 
these  locusts  are  full  grown,  and  they  measure  now  about 
one  and  three-eighths  inches  from  the  head  to  the  wing  tips. 
They  do  not  pass  through  an  inactive  pupa  state,  but  moult 

Inform  yourself  about  the  work  that  is  being  done  at  the  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  of  your  state  and  by  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture. 


216        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

about  five  times.  Swarms  bred  in  regions  which  are  only 
temporarily  infested  direct  their  flight  towards  the  north  or 
northwest.  Swarms  which  come  from  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, of  course  move  south  and  southeast.  Winged  locusts 
travel  from  thirty  to  thirty-five  miles  a  day  on  the  average, 
but  with  a  high  wind  they  may  attain  a  speed  of  fifty  miles 
an  hour. 

Most  of  the  locusts  found  in  the  Northern  States  deposit 
their  eggs  as  described  for  the  Rocky  Mountain  species,  and 
the  habits  of  the  other  migratory  kinds  are  very  similar  to 
the  species  described. 

To  the  natural  enemies  of  the  grasshoppers  belong  many 
parasitic  and  predaceous  insects.  Nearly  all  birds,  as  well 
as  skunks,  shrews,  gophers,  toads,  snakes,  and  turtles,  feast 
on  them. 

For  artificial  means  of  checking  locust  plagues,  see  the  literature 
mentioned  above. 

Birds  seen  in  the  Field 

Those  of  the  boys  who  work  in  the  field  in  summer  and 
fall  are  well  acquainted  with  the  Prairie  Hen ;  they  recog- 
nize their  "  booming  "  in  the  spring ;  they  occasionally  find 
their  eggs  and  young ;  but  even  the  girls,  who  possibly  stay 
at  home  more  than  they  ought  to,  have  heard  Bob  White,  the 
quail,  when  he  was  calling  on  a  fence  post  near  the  front 
door.  And  the  poor  city  folks  who  never  found  time  to 
leave  the  big  town  and  see  a  field  of  growing  wheat,  and 
who  have  become  so  highly  educated  that  they  find  far 
more  beauty  in  shop-window  displays  than  in  trees  and 
flowers,  can  see  thousands  of  prairie  hens  and  quails  on 
the  market  during  the  shooting  season.  But  there  is 
another  bird  which  we  see  so  often  on  our  walks  through 

Observations.  —  Visit  such  stations  if  you  have  an  opportunity. 


IN   THE   FIELD  217 

the  fields  that  we  must  not  omit  it  here;    I  refer  to  the 
Kingbird. 

§  36.    The  Kingbird.     Tyrannus  tyrannus. 

MATERIAL  :  As  mentioned  for  birds  before.     Previously  observed : 
How  the  bird  catches  its  food,  its  mode  of  flight,  its  nest,  etc. 


OUTLINE  FOR  LESSON 

This  is  the  bird  so  commonly  seen  perching  on  wires, 
posts,  bushes,  and  tall  weeds  along  roadsides.  From  these 
perches  i't  darts  out  after  a  passing  insect,  captures  it  on 
the  wing,  and  immediately  returns  to  its  perch. 

Description.  —  Both  male  and  female  are  black  above, 
with  an  orange-red  streak  on  the  top  of  the  head;  the 
color  beneath  is  grayish-white,  and  the  tail  terminates  in 
a  white  band.  The  kingbird  is  considerably  smaller  than 
the  robin,  measuring  about  eight  inches  from  the  tip  of  the 
bill  to  the  end  of  the  tail. 

The  kingbird  arrives  at  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  about  the  first 
of  May ;  it  builds  its  nest  in  tall  bushes  and  about  build- 
ings, out  of  twigs,  coarse  grasses,  and  weeds,  and  lines  it 
with  fine  roots,  grasses,  and  horsehairs.  It  lays  its  eggs 
about  the  first  of  June. 

Habits.  —  The  kingbird  lives  exclusively  on  low-flying 
insects,  catching  them,  as  described  above,  while  they  are 
flying  from  bush  to  bush.  It  is  a  typical  flycatcher  like 
the  Phoebe,  or  Pewee.  How  do  swallows  and  woodpeckers 
procure  their  insects  ?  Compare  their  habits  with  those  of 
the  flycatcher's.  It  is  a  very  useful  bird,  and  does  not 
deserve  the  name  of  Bee  Martin,  as  it  catches  only  a  few 
drones. 

Name.  —  This  bird  is  a  great  fighter,  attacking  and  con- 
quering almost  any  bird  that  happens  to  approach  it,  and  is 


218        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

therefore  called  kingbird.      Let  the  children  tell  of  their 
observations  on  this  topic. 

It  migrates  south  from  here  early  in  September,  when  the 
first  frosts  occur.  Why  should  it  leave  so  early  ?  Do  you 
know  of  other  birds  that  arrive  late  and  leave  early  ?  Why 
do  they  ? 

§  37.  The  Prairie  Hen,  or  Prairie  Chicken  (Tympanuchus 
Americanus),  and  The  Quail,  or  Bob  White. 

MATERIAL:  Freshly  killed  birds,  if  the  lesson  is  given  during  the 
open  season  ;  if  not,  pictures  or  outdoor  observations  must  suffice. 
Study  these  two  birds  together. 

OUTLINE  FOB  LESSON 

Descriptions.  —  Prairie  Hen :  About  tl^e  size  of  a  half- 
grown  domestic  chicken,  but  more  compact;  legs  shorter; 
feathered  on  the  side  and  in  front.  Describe  the  plumage 
from  the  bird  before  you. 

Quail:  Only  about  half  as  large  as  the  preceding,  being 
about  the  size  of  a  robin,  but  body  much  stouter  and  tail 
shorter;  legs  stronger,  fit  for  running  and  scratching. 
Describe  the  plumage  as  above. 

Habits.  —  Both  nest  on  the  ground;  lay  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  eggs.  The  young  are  not  fed  in  the  nest,  but  run 
about  with  the  mother  like  young  chickens.  In  spring  and 
early  summer  all  subsist  largely  on  insects;  in  fall  and 
winter  they  feed  on  seeds,  especially  on  waste  grain  in  the 
field.  In  severe  winter  weather  the  prairie  hens  flock  into 
the  woods ;  the  quails  find  shelter  and  food  about  outbuild- 
ings, corn  bins,  and  straw  stacks.  , 

Both  birds  have  increased  much  in  number  since  the  country 
became  settled,  wherever  common-sense  game  laws  are  enforced. 
In  Minnesota  both  are  more  common  now  than  they  were 
in  the  early  days.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  grain- 


IN  THE   FIELD  219 

fields  afford  them  a  never-failing  supply  of  food,  and  that 
their  natural  enemies,  such  as  foxes,  weasels,  minks,  skunks, 
hawks,  and  owls  are  much  reduced  in  number  by  man. 

WJiy  it  is  not  brutal  to  hunt  these  birds  in  the  shooting  sea- 
son. If  it  is  not  in  itself  wrong  to  eat  domestic  animals, 
it  cannot  be  wrong  to  eat  wild  animals.  But  a  true  sports- 
man does  not  kill  the  old  birds  at  a  time  when  the  death  of 
one  of  them  would  cause  a  dozen  helpless  little  ones  to 
starve  or  be  chilled  to  death,  because  it  would  not  only 
be  cruel  but  also  a  wanton  destruction  of  game ;  nor  does 
he  hunt  the  young  before  they  can  fly  well  and  know  how  to 
avoid  danger,  for  to  hunt  them  before  that  time  would  be 
mere  butchery,  and  would  also  soon  exterminate  them. 

Nature  has  also,  in  regard  to  game  and  fish,  provided  for 
this  country  so  bountifully  that  there  will  be  plenty  of 
good,  healthy  recreation  for  all  lovers  of  the  gun  and  the 
rod  for  generations  to  come,  if  we  only  have  sense  enough 
not  to  destroy  either  without  foresight. 

Range  of  the  two  birds.  —  The  quail  is  a  common  bird  from 
the  Atlantic  coast  to  the  great  plains ;  it  prefers  districts 
with  some  timber  ^  the  prairie  hen  is  chiefly  found  in  the 
prairie  states ;  in  the  woods  its  place  is  taken  by  the  Ruffled 
Grouse,  or  Partridge. 

Mammals  in  the  Field 

In  all  regions  of  the  earth  which  are  under  cultivation 
by  man,  large  mammals  have  been  exterminated,  because 
many  of  them  would  do  much  injury  to  crops,  if  present  in 
great  numbers.  These  large  animals  cannot  easily  conceal 
themselves,  and  as  they  are  always  hunted  by  men  and 
molested  by  dogs,  they  retire  to  the  wilderness.  This 
explains  why  they  are  absent  from  many  regions  of  our 
country  where  they  would  do  little  or  no  harm  and  would 
find  an  abundance  of  food.  Only  such  small  animals  as 


220        HANDBOOK  OP  NATURE  STUDY 

mice,  rats,  gophers,  squirrels,  rabbits,  foxes,  weasels,  minks, 
skunks,  and  others  which  easily  find  a  hiding-place  are 
common  in  well-settled  districts,  and  some  of  them  have 
become  very  numerous  with  the  increase  in  their  food 
supply.  Of  the  smaller  rodents,  mice  and  gophers  are  the 
most  common  on  fields  and  they  furnish  a  large  part  of  the 
food  for  the  smaller  flesh-eating  mammals  and  for  hawks 
and  owls. 

§  38.   The  Striped  Gopher.     Spermophilus  tridecemlineatus. 

MATERIAL:  Picture;  mounted  specimen;  gopher  in  cage;  freshly 
killed  specimen.  Outdoor  observations  :  Cutworms  and  webworms. 

OUTLINE  FOR  LESSON 

Description.  —  About  the  size  of  the  chipmunk,  but  body 
and  especially  the  tail  longer,  ears  shorter,  nails  longer, 
more  intended  for  digging  than  for  climbing.  Eight  pale 
yellowish-brown  stripes  on  the  back,  which  alternate  with 
nine  yellowish-brown  ones ;  the  five  uppermost  marked  with 
a  row  of  pale  spots.  Voice,  a  clear  whistle  like  that  of  a 
bird. 

Habits. — Lives  in  holes;  hibernates;  does  not  appear 
until  late  in  spring;  ranges  northwest  from  Arkansas  and 
Illinois. 

Food.  —  About  forty-five  per  cent  of  it  consists  of  in- 
sects, especially  injurious  cutworms ;  the  remainder  consists 
of  grain,  grass,  and  green  herbs ;  they  do  considerable  dam- 
age by  digging  up  corn  before  it  has  sprouted. 

Observations  at  the  Iowa  Experimental  Farm  showed  that 
twenty-two  striped  gophers  had  eaten  from  April  19  to 
August  2  an  average  number  of  twenty-six  cutworms  and 
webworms  daily.  Mr.  C.  P.  Gilette,  who  conducted  the 

Observations. — Leaves  and  fruit  of  tlie  trees,  shrubs,  and  vines  you 
studied  iu  spring  and  summer. 


IN  THE   FIELD  221 

experiment,  says :  "  Most  of  the  harm  they  do  is  strikingly 
noticeable  and  is  of  short  duration,  while  the  good  is  per- 
petual from  spring  to  fall,  but  is  in  no  way  noticeable  and 
cannot  well  be  estimated." 

See  Bulletin  No.  6,  Iowa  Agricultural  Experimental  Station. 

§  39.    The  Earthworm. 

MATERIAL  :  Earthworms  on  moist  soil  in  a  small  dish.  Previously 
observed  :  Tracks  of  the  worms  after  a  rain  ;  worms  creeping  about 
on  wet  soil,  boards,  or  stones  ;  castings  over  their  holes  ;  leaves  and 
straws  drawn  into  their  holes. 

You  know  that  birds  and  mammals  have  an  internal  bony 
skeleton,  which  gives  them  a  solid  frame  for  the  whole 
body;  insects  and  crabs  have  110  bones,  but  they  have  a 
hard  external  covering  by  which  the  soft,  inner  parts  are 
protected,  and  to  which  their  muscles  are  attached.  How 
much  the  earthworm  differs  from  all  these  animals !  It  has 
no  legs,  no  bones,  no  hard  carapace  like  the  beetle ;  its  body 
is  simply  a  bundle  of  muscles  covered  by  a  soft  skin. 

How  can  the  earthworm  move  ?  If  you  are  close  observers, 
you  have  seen  that  the  whole  body  consists  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  rings,  and  that  the  worm  can  contract  and  extend 
itself  very  much.  Along  the  sides  and  below  you  can  see, 
and  feel  still  better,  a  large  number  of  short  bristles,  which 
keep  the  worm  from  slipping  back  as  it  crawls  by  extend- 
ing and  contracting  itself.  Have  you  ever  tried  to  pull 
earthworms  out  of  their  holes  ?  If  you  did,  you  must  have 
found  that  their  strength  is  considerable.  By  means  of  their 
numerous  bristles,  and  by  contracting  their  muscles,  they 
often  escape  into  their  holes  when  the  boys  attempt  to  pull 
them  out. 

In  spite  of  a  host  of  enemies,  earthworms  are  abundant 
wherever  a  rich  soil  furnishes  them  food. 

At  what  time  do  the  various  seeds  mature  ? 


222        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

Moles  and  shrews  burrow  for  them  in  the  ground ;  birds, 
toads,  salamanders,  and  predaceous  beetles  devour  them 
whenever  they  appear  on  the  surface.  Although  earthworms 
have  no  organs  of  hearing,  they  do  perceive  vibrations  of  the 
ground,  which  are  caused  by  the  walking  of  men  and  animals, 
and  these  vibrations  cause  them  to  retreat  into  their  burrows. 
They  leave  their  burrows  only  at  night,  and  then  only  when 
the  ground  is  wet,  because  they  cannot  move  over  dry  sand 
or  dust.  Can  you  tell  why  not?  Towards  morning  they 
return  into  the  ground.  They  have  no  eyes,  but  investi- 
gators have  proved  that  a  few  of  the  rings  near  the  mouth 
are  able  to  perceive  the  light.  An  earthworm  placed  in 
bright  sunlight  shows  by  its  motions  that  either  the  light 
or  the  warmth,  or  both,  are  exceedingly  painful  to  it.  In 
the  morning  earthworm  tracks  can  be  seen  everywhere  on 
moist,  bare  ground,  and  on  rainy  days  they  can  be  seen  in 
the  daytime  creeping  on  stone  and  on  wooden  walks.  From 
which  ones  of  their  enemies  do  their  nocturnal  habits  pro- 
tect them  ? 

The  food  of  earthworms  consists  of  decaying  animal  and 
vegetable  matter,  such  as  is  abundantly  present  in  all  rich 
field  and  garden  soils.  Why  do  boys  not  look  for  earth- 
worms in  sterile,  sandy  soils  ?  The  earthworm  has  no  dis- 
tinct head,  but  you  will  find  the  mouth  on  the  anterior  end 
of  the  body.  They  often  devour  large  masses  of  dirt  and 
extract  their  food  from  it,  and  if  there  is  not  sufficient  food 
in  the  soil,  they  will  pull  leaves,  straws,  and  other  objects 
into  their  burrows  and  eat  them  when  they  begin  to  decay. 
Have  you  seen  leaves  and  straws  "planted"  by  earthworms? 

We  have  learned  that  the  earthworm,  although  it  has 
none  of  the  sense  organs  of  higher  animals,  is  nevertheless 
enabled  very  often  to  escape  from  its  enemies.  But  how  can 
a  being  of  such  low  organization  cope  with  adverse  conditions 

Observations.  —  By  what  means  are  they  scattered  ? 


IN  THE  FIELD  223 

of  temperature  and  moisture  ?  Although  it  must  always 
have  moisture,  it  cannot  live  long  in  water  and  in  very 
wet  soil ;  therefore  earthworms  are  found  near  the  surface 
and  on  higher  grounds  in  a  rainy  season.  In  a  dry  season, 
however,  they  retreat  to  lower  grounds  and  burrow  deeper 
into  the  soil ;  and  if  the  drought  is  prolonged  and  the  lower 
soil  too  compact,  they  coil  themselves  into  little  balls,  and 
in  this  quiescent  state  await  the  showers,  which  enable  them 
to  renew  their  activity.  In  late  fall  they  go  down  below 
the  frost  line,  coil  themselves  up,  and  pass  the  winter  in  a 
torpid  state.  In  this  latitude  they  reappear  in  March  or 
April,  according  to  the  weather. 

The  eggs,  from  which  complete  worms  hatch,  are  laid  in 
cocoons  in  the  ground. 

In  former  lessons  we  learned  what  important  factors 
insects,  birds,  trees,  and  grasses  are  in  the  great  household 
of  nature.  The  great  English  naturalist,  Darwin,  has  shown 
that  even  this  humble  worm  performs  important  work  in 
the  vast  workshop  of  nature.  He  found  that  the  soil  thrown 
up  in  their  castings  or  pellets  varied  from  seven  to  eighteen 
tons  on  an  acre  in  one  year.  It  is  plain  that  by  the  activity 
of  these  worms  the  soil  is  made  finer  and  rendered  more  porous, 
therefore  its  fertility  is  increased.  In  some  places  burrowing 
mammals  transfer  a  very  considerable  amount  of  soil  to  the 
surface.  The  writer  has  observed  islands  in  Minnesota  lakes 
on  which  every  foot  of  soil  had  been  turned  over  by  wood- 
chucks,  skunks,  gophers,  and  other  small  mammals.  Rank 
weeds  soon  cover  such  excavated  soil,  showing  by  their 
luxurious  growth  that  the  little  folks  in  fur  have  put  the 
ground  in  good  condition  for  plant  growth.  Have  you  ever 
observed  how  much  soil  digger  wasps  and  ants,  especially 
the  latter,  will  bring  up?  From  early  spring  until  late 
autumn  you  can  find  hundreds  of  small  ant  holes  on  almost 

Insect  injuries  on  leaves,  flowers,  fruit,  and  twigs. 


224  HANDBOOK   OF  NATURE   STUDY 

any  acre  of  dry  ground ;  every  shower  washes  the  excavated 
soil  away  and  closes  the  holes,  but  the  next  sunny  noon 
finds  our  pigmy  miners  diligently  at  work  reconstructing 
their  Lilliputian  galleries.  When  we  remember  that  worms, 
insects,  and  mammals  had  cultivated  the  soil  for  thousands 
of  years  before  man  began  to  use  rude  ploughs  and  hoes,  it 
is  plain  that  near  the  surface  there  exists  probably  little  soil 
which  these  humble  creatures  have  not  turned  over.  They 
have  done  their  share  to  make  this  earth  a  place  Jit  for  human 
habitation  and  human  activity.  Should  we  now  begrudge 
them  their  homes,  where  they  work  and  are  happy  in  their 
own  ways,  when  they  do  not  injure  us ;  should  any  boy  or 
man  be  so  brutal  as  to  wish  to  shoot,  kill,  or  crush  every- 
thing which  flies,  walks,  or  creeps  ? 

To  our  shame  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  there  are  not 
only  such  boys,  but  also  such  men  still  among  us. 

§  40.   Field  and  Garden  Soil. 

MATERIAL,  :  About  a  quart  of  black  soil  mixed  with  gravel  and 
pebbles  ;  pieces  of  crumbling  and  decaying  stones  ;  a  half-gallon  glass 
jar ;  a  large  flower  pot.  Observed  outdoors  :  Black  topsoil ;  sandy 
and  clayey  subsoil ;  humus  from  woods  or  swamps. 

It  is  known  to  everybody  that  animals  live  on  the  sub- 
stances they  take  into  their  stomachs,  and  that  indigestible 
matter  is  passed  off  with  the  excrements.  It  has  been  a 
more  difficult  matter  to  find  out  just!  how  plants  feed ;  but 
careful  experiments  have  shown  that  most  of  the  substance 
which  makes  the  woody  tissue  of  plants  is  absorbed  from  the 
air  by  the  leaves.  If  you  put  a  piece  of  wood  into  a  hot 
oven  until  it  becomes  charred,  you  will  see  that  wood  con- 
tains a  large  part  of  coal.  Green  leaves  absorb  carbon 
dioxide  gas  from  the  air,  and  in  this  carbon  dioxide  gas  the 
coal  is  contained.  If  a  plant  is  kept  stripped  of  all  its 
leaves,  it  will  die  of  starvation.  What  insects  frequently 


IN   THE   FIELD  225 

kill  plants  in  this  way  ?  When  plants  or  wood  are  put 
into  the  fire,  the  coal  burns  and  the  ashes  remain  behind. 
The  substances  which  form  the  ashes  and  the  large  amount 
of  water  present  in  all  living  plants  are  taken  from  the  soil 
by  the  roots.  Water  and  soil  are  as  necessary  for  plant  life 
as  air. 

In  order  to  examine  this  dark  soil  in  which  the  plants 
grow,  we  put  a  few  handfuls  of  it  into  water  and  shake  the 
whole  in  this  glass  jar.  The  pebbles  and  gravel  at  once 
sink  to  the  bottom  when  we  set  the  jar  down,  but  the  finer 
soil  is  mixed  with  the  water  and  gives  it  a  muddy  appear- 
ance. After  a  while  the  finer  soil  also  settles,  and  if  we  let 
the  jar  stand  long  enough  the  water  becomes  again  clear, 
but  on  the  surface  float  partly  decayed  plant  remnants, 
which  are  derived  either  from  the  plants  that  grew  on  the 
soil  or  from  manure.  We  can  see  through  the  glass  that 
the  pebbles  and  the  coarse  gravel  are  at  the  bottom,  and 
that  the  finest  mud  is  on  top.  Now  we  will  put  this  soil 
into  a  flower  pot,  pour  water  on  it,  and  thoroughly  stir  the 
whole.  After  the  water  is  nearly  clear  I  shall  pour  it  off 
carefully,  take  the  cork  out  of  the  hole  in  the  bottom  of  the 
pot,  and  then  I  shall  place  the  flower  pot  out  in  the  sun,  so 
that  the  water  may  drain  out  and  the  soil  be  thoroughly 
dried.  You  may  observe  the  drying  soil,  and  to-morrow  or 
the  next  day  we  shall  study  it  again. 

§  41.   Field  and  Garden  Soil  (Continuation). 

The  soil  which  we  placed  out  of  doors  is  now  so  dry  that 
it  has  cracked  and  shrivelled.  If  we  moisten  small  pieces 
of  it  and  then  rub  them  between  our  fingers,  we  find  that  it 
contains  some  clay,  which  makes  it  sticky,  and  we  also  feel 
and  see  small  grains  of  sand.  But  we  wish  to  know  what 
gives  the  dark  color  to  this  soil,  and  Fred  will  tell  us  how 
he  found  it  out :  "  I  placed  a  handful  of  dark  soil  on  a  large, 
Q 


226         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

old  spoon,  and  then  put  the  spoon  on  a  strong  coal  fire  and 
left  it  there  for  about  half  an  hour ;  at  the  end  of  that  time 
the  black  color  of  the  soil  had  disappeared.  As  I  have 
often  observed  that  decayed  logs  and  leaves  in  the  woods 
form  a  dark  mould,  I  concluded  that  the  dark  color  in  the 
surface  soil  is  due  to  decayed  and  finely  divided  vegetable 
matter,  and  that  the  dark  color  of  the  soil  disappeared  be- 
cause this  vegetable  matter  had  been  burned." 

Fred's  conclusion  is  correct,  and  I  wish  more  of  you  would 
perform  the  same  experiment.  We  find,  then,  that  the  prin- 
cipal constituents  of  agricultural  soil  are  sand,  clay,  and  vege- 
table mould  or  humus.  Besides  these  the  soil  contains  small 
quantities  of  several  other  substances,  such  as  potash,  soda, 
lime,  common  salt,  and  iron.  If  you  bleach  out  a  little 
ashes,  you  can  taste  the  potash  and  soda  in  the  lye,  because 
they  are  easily  soluble.  Only  such  minerals  as  dissolve  in 
water  can  be  absorbed  by  plants. 

The  best  soil  for  plant  growth,  and  therefore  for  farming 
and  gardening,  is  a  black  loam.  Loam  is  a  mixture  of  clay, 
sand,  and  humus.  Very  sandy  soil  is  too  porous,  and  lets 
the  rain  water  pass  through  too  quickly,  and  on  that  account 
crops  are  likely  to  fail  on  it  unless  frequent  rains  occur. 
Clay  is,  in  this  respect,  the  very  opposite  of  sand.  It  is 
sticky,  quite  impervious  to  water,  and  therefore  holds  the 
surface  water  too  long  in  a  rainy  season,  but  becomes  baked 
and  hard  in  a  dry  season.  Black  loam,  however,  has  just 
the  right  porosity  for  plant  roots  and  for  drainage,  and  still 
holds  a  sufficient  amount  of  water  and  air.  On  account  of 
its  dark  color  it  absorbs  the  rays  of  the  sun  and  makes  a 
much  warmer  soil  than  clay.  For  these  reasons  it  is  the  best 
soil  for  a  large  majority  of  plants. 

The  crumbling  stones  which  I  have  here,  and  the  fact 
that  even  hard  building  stones  wear  and  weather  if  ex- 
posed to  the  atmosphere,  to  rains,  heat,  and  frost,  is  evi- 


IN   THE   FIELD  227 

dence  that  nature  is  all  the  time  forming  more  soil.  If  the 
wild  plants  decay  where  they  grew,  the  amount  of  humus  is 
also  increased.  Why  do  we  often  find  much  humus  in  the 
woods  and  very  little  on  the  prairie  ? 

From  cultivated  fields,  however,  the  plants  grown  are  partly 
or  entirely  removed,  and  can  therefore  not  furnish  food  for 
those  of  the  next  season;  and  it  has  been  found,  as  thinking 
people  ivould  expert,  that  such  lands  become  poorer  from  year 
to  year,  unless  some  means  are  taken  to  restore  the  lost  plant 
foods  to  the  ground.  Therefore  the  farmer  who  does  not 
want  his  farm  to  become  run  down  restores  the  plant  food 
to  it  in  the  shape  of  barnyard  manure  or  as  artificial  fer- 
tilizers, and  he  does  not  try  to  raise  the  same  kind  of  grain 
on  the  same  field  for  years  in  succession.  If,  for  instance, 
wheat  is  grown  year  after  year,  nearly  all  of  the  wheat- 
producing  materials  are  withdrawn  from  the  soil,  and  the 
last  crops  will  fall  far  short  of  the  first  ones. 

§  42.  Stock-raising  and  Agriculture.  Neglected  or  Undevel- 
oped Opportunities  in  American  Farming. 

As  every  successful  farmer  must  fertilize  his  lands  from 
time  to  time,  he  is  compelled  to  keep  a  good  stock  of  cattle 
and  other  animals  on  hand,  because  for  the  large  majority  of 
farmers  barnyard  or  stable  manure  is  the  best  and  cheapest 
fertilizer.  Cattle,  moreover,  enable  the  farmer  to  use  for 
pasture  or  hay  land  any  low  meadows  which  are  too  wet  for 
cultivation.  Bluffs,  broken  or  very  stony  soil  may  make  good 
pasture,  although  the  land  is  not  fit  for  cultivation.  Besides 
the  advantages  mentioned,  a  farmer  who  has  a  good  stock  of 
cattle,  hogs,  or  sheep  is  not  dependent  on  the  price  of  grain 
alone  for  an  income.  During  the  last  five  or  six  years  of 
low  grain  prices  American  farmers  have  learned  to  appreci- 
ate the  wisdom  of  the  mixed  farming. 

New  sources  of  profit  are  also  being  developed.     Cream- 


228        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

eries  are  now  established  all  over  the  country,  and  experi- 
ments are  being  made  in  the  manufacture  of  beet  sugar. 
As  far  as  soil  and  climate  are  concerned,  we  can  certainly 
produce  all  the  sugar  we  need  for  home  consumption,  and 
a  great  deal  more.  Experiments  must  determine  whether 
it  is  cheaper  to  produce  it  at  home  or  import  it  from  abroad. 
In  many  instances  American  farming  is  still  very  waste- 
ful, as  compared  with  the  best  methods  followed  in  Europe. 
In  Europe  the  fibre  of  flax  is  the  most  valuable  part  of  that 
crop,  while  the  seed  is  merely  a  valuable  by-product.  In 
this  country  we  use  the  seed  only,  and  burn  the  valuable 
fibre  or  let  it  rot.  Along  roads  and  in  waste  places  hemp 
grows  luxuriantly.  It  has  no  doubt  been  introduced  with 
birdseed,  and  is  now  disseminated  by  wild  birds.  Most 
people  do  not  even  know  that  this  plant  produces  the  seed 
for  which  they  pay  about  ten  cents  a  pound  as  canary  food, 
and  that  it  produces  an  excellent  fibre  for  twine  and  textile 
fabrics.  Our  wild  birds  appreciate  the  seed  and  also  the 
fibre.  Let  the  children  twist  small  strings  out  of  flax  and 
hemp  fibre.  Why  waste  the  fibre  of  flax  and  hemp,  and 
then  pay  a  big  price  for  imported  linen  and  for  manilla 
and  sisal  fibre  ? 

See  the  following  Farmers'  Bulletins:  No.  21,  Barnyard  Manure; 
No.  27,  Flax  for  Seed  and  Fibre  ;  No.  40,  Farm  Drainage  ;  No.  43, 
Sewage  Disposal  on  the  Farm ;  No.  44,  Commercial  Fertilizers ;  No. 
46,  Irrigation  in  Humid  Climates. 

§  43.    Influence  of  Agriculture  upon  Man. 

If  we  wish  to  inquire  into  the  influence  agriculture  has 
had  upon  man,  we  only  need  to  compare  the  life  of  white 
men. with  that  of  our  North  American  Indians.  The  latter 
knew  of  no  "  Sweet  Home  "  ;  they  had  no  fatherland.  The 
different  tribes  roamed  over  their  large  hunting-grounds, 
following  the  migrations  or  abundance  of  the  game  on  which 
they  depended.  They  had  not  even  progressed  to  the  stage 


IN  THE  FIELD  229 

of  nomadic  peoples,  probably  because  game  was  so  abundant 
that  they  were  not  hard  enough  pressed  by  hunger  to  domes- 
ticate wild  animals  and  thus  procure  a  constant  supply  of 
meat.  It  is,  however,  likely  that  there  were  still  other 
causes  which  tended  to  keep  them  in  the  savage  state ;  still 
we  must  not  omit  to  state  here  that  some  of  the  tribes  cul- 
tivated small  patches  of  corn. 

When  the  first  settlements  of  whites  were  made  on  the 
coast  of  the  United  States,  there  were  probably  not  more 
than  five  hundred  thousand  Indians  living  in  a  country 
which  now  supports  sixty-five  million  souls,  and  which 
could  easily  support  twice  as  many.  This  shows  that  by 
agriculture  a  much  larger  population  can  be  supported  on 
the  same  area  than  can  be  supported  by  the  chase. 

Hunting  tribes  and  nomadic  tribes  could  never  form  large 
states  as  long  as  they  remained  hunters  and  nomads.  His- 
tory teaches  us  that  all  large  states  have  been,  and  are  to- 
day, based  on  an  agricultural  population.  With  agricultural 
peoples,  the  incessant  wars  waged  by  savages  as  well  as  by 
nomadic  tribes  ceased,  and  the  needs  of  the  different  seasons 
taught  men  orderly  and  regular  habits  of  work  and  to  look 
into  the  future  and  provide  for  it.  All  savages,  like  our 
Indians,  are  very  much  averse  to  regular  and  long-con- 
tinued work;  they  gorge  themselves  when  they  have  plenty 
of  food,  but  are  half-starved  when  food  is  scarce.  Among 
an  agricultural  people  industry  and  commerce  spring  up 
naturally,  because  some  apply  themselves  to  making  tools, 
agricultural  implements,  clothing,  etc.,  for  the  others,  and 
there  we  have  the  beginning  of  different  trades  and  of 
factories.  As  not  every  person  produced  everything  he 
needed,  a  number  of  persons  exchanged  their  products,  and 
this  was  the  beginning  of  commerce. 

Agriculture  enabled  large  numbers  of  men  to  live  close  to- 
gether and  made  progress  toivards  a  higher  civilization  possible. 


230         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

.  .> 
It  has  also  been  found  that  agriculture  has  a  great  effect 

upon  the  climate  of  a  country.  At  the  time  of  Caesar, 
Holland,  Belgium,  and  Germany  were  covered  with  inter- 
minable swamps  and  forests  and  had  a  very  cold  and  cloudy 
climate.  To-day  these  countries  have  been  transformed  into 
sunny  gardens  and  fields,  where  all  the  grains  and  fruits  of 
the  north  temperate  zone  flourish.  Old  chroniclers  and  old 
settlers  tell  us  that  in  this  country  the  winters  were  more 
severe  formerly  than  they  are  now  and  that  snow  and  rain 
were  more  abundant.  Although  the  different  reports  of  such 
changes  must  be  accepted  with  caution,  they  are  no  doubt  true 
in  general.  Can  you  see  why  agriculture  should  make  a  coun- 
try drier  and  warmer  ?  Is  such  a  change  beneficial  in  every 
respect  ?  How  can  some  of  its  attendant  evils  be  avoided  ? 

America  furnishes  us  a  very  interesting  chapter  in  the 
history  of  civilization  and  in  the  history  of  mankind.  About 
two  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago  small  bands  of  white  people 
from  England,  Ireland,  Scotland,  Holland,  Germany,  and 
Sweden  settled  on  our  eastern  coast  and  hewed  small  clear- 
ings into  the  dark,  boundless  forests.  They  had  brought 
with  them  their  domesticated  animals  and  cultivated  plants. 
Many  weeds,  now  common,  and  many  insect  pests,  and  also 
such  pests  as  domestic  mice  and  rats,  were  accidentally 
introduced.  To-day  the  white  man  and  the  animals  and 
plants  which,  purposely  or  accidentally,  he  brought  over 
with  him  are  in  possession  of  the  continent;  a  continent 
which  is  among  the  most  productive,  but  which  nevertheless 
had  never  developed  a  high,  general  civilization. 

REFERENCE  BOOKS 

The  teacher  and  mature  pupils  will  find  the  following  books  very 
interesting  and  very  instructive  :  — 

Tarr.  Physical  Geography.    The  Macmillan  Company.    1897.    $1.40. 

Shaler.  Nature  and  Man  in  America.  Scribner,  New  York.  1891 .  $1.50. 

Gnyot.  The  Earth  and  Man.     Scribner,  New  York.     $1.75. 

Shaler.  Story  of  our  Continent. 


VI 

THE  WOODS  IN    THEIR   SUMMER  FOLIAGE. 
SEPTEMBER 

§  44.    The  Leaves  of  our  Trees  and  Shrubs. 

MATERIAL:  A  walk  into  the  woods,  or  observations  on  trees  and 
shrubs  in  parks  and  along  streets,  should  precede  this  lesson.  Leaves 
or  leafy  twigs  of  all  plants  to  be  mentioned  ;  press  and  keep  leaves  of 
all.  Preserve  also  a  large  variety  of  leaves  injured  by  insects  in  various 
ways. 

Most  teachers  probably  have  no  time  to  study  the  leaves  more  in 
detail.  The  few  new  terms  used  should  be  explained  as  they  occur, 
and  should  be  thoroughly  understood  by  the  children.  Let  them 
describe  the  leaves  as  they  see  them. 

All  our  trees  have  had  their  fully  developed  foliage  for 
several  months  ;  some  are  still  producing  young  leaves,  but 
most  of  them  have  only  full-sized  leaves.  You  must  have 
observed  that  it  is  much  more  difficult  now  to  see  the 
branches  and  twigs  distinctly  than  it  was  in  March  and 
April.  The  birds  also  know  that  the  leaves  protect  their 
nests  from  intruders,  and  they  do  not  build  them  until  the 
leaves  are  out.  It  is  easy,  in  early  spring,  to  find  the  old 
nests,  but  not  so  easy  to  find  the  new  ones  in  May  and  June. 

Although  the  leaves  we  collected  show  a  great  variety  of 
forms,  we  can  nevertheless  arrange  them  for  comparison 
in  a  few  groups. 

1.  The  leaves  of  elms,  of  the  hazel,  the  dogwoods,  the 
chokecherry,  and  the  ironwood  are  more  or  less  oval  in 

Observations.  —  Notice  the  beginning  of  autumn  colors  on  foliage,  and 
watch  its  increase. 

231 


OFTHB 
TTXTTT7T.-RC-TTY 


232         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

shape ;  have  only  a  short  stalk ;  their  margins  are  serrate, 
or  toothed,  but  show  no  large  lobes.  Which  of  these  are 
smooth,  and  which  are  rough  or  hairy  ? 

2.  The  leaves  of  most  of  our  common  oaks  are  deeply 
lobed,  and  have  only  a  short  stalk,  or  petiole.     The  leaves 
of  most  of  the  black  oaks  terminate  their  lobes  in  a  fine, 
needle-shaped  point,  while  the  white  oaks  show  rounded 
lobes.     Are  oak  leaves  smooth,  glossy,  or  downy  ?     Do  they 
look  alike  on  both  sides  ?     Do  elms  or  oaks  present  the 
more  densely  massed  foliage  ? 

3.  Here  we  have  leaves  that  grew  on  the  sugar  maple, 
the   silver  maple,  and   the   wild  grape   vine,  respectively. 
How  does  the  length  of  the  leaves  compare  with  the  length 
of  the  petiole  ?     How  can  you  distinguish  the  three  kinds 
from  one  another  ?     How  do  these  leaves  differ  from  oak 
leaves,  and  from  the  leaves  we  placed  in  the  first  group  ? 

4.  The  leaves  of  the  quaking  asp,  the  cottonwood,  and 
the  birches  have  a  long,  slender  petiole,  and  are  moved  by 
the   slightest   breeze.     Have  you   ever  heard  the   lisping, 
whispering  sounds  of  poplar  groves  on   a   summer   day? 
What  effect  has  a  strong  wind  upon  poplar  leaves  ?     Why 
should   one   of  the   poplars   be   called    the   quaking  asp  ? 
Break  some  poplar  petioles  by  pulling.     Why  is  it  neces- 
sary that  the  petioles  should  be  strong  ?     How  does  the 
width  of  these    leaves  compare  with  their  length  ?     Are 
the  veins  more  prominent  than  in  maples  and  oaks  ? 

5.  Willow  leaves  are  much  longer  than  wide.     Describe 
their  margins.     The  leaves  of  the  linden  are  quite  broad, 
and  distinctly  heart-shaped.     How  does  their  venation  com- 
pare with  that  in  poplar  leaves  ? 

All  the  leaves  we  have  examined  thus  far  had  each  a 
separate  petiole,  which  issued  directly  from  the  woody  twig; 


Observations.  —  Where  is  the  most  beautiful  autumn  grove  you  know  of  ? 


THE   WOODS   IN   THEIR   SUMMER   FOLIAGE         233 

such  leaves  are  called  simple  leaves.  In  the  next  two  groups 
we  have  compound -leaves.  Each  one  of  these  has  a  number 
of  leaflets  attached  to  a  common  petiole. 

6.  The  beautiful  large  leaves  of  the  asp,  the  butternut, 
and  the  hickory  are  of  this  type.     The  arrangement  of  the 
leaflets  reminds  one  of  a  pretty  feather,  and  therefore  such 
leaves  are  described  as  pinnate,  or  feather-shaped.     How 
can  you  distinguish  these  three  kinds  of  leaves  by  their 
touch  and  their  smell?     Do  peas,  roses,  and  prickly  ash 
have  compound  or  simple  leaves  ?     Which  pinnate  leaves 
have  an  even  number,  which  an  odd  number  of  leaflets? 
Do  you  know  the  Kentucky  Coffee  Tree  ?     It  has  the  most 
compound  leaves  of  all  American  trees.     Its  flowers  resem- 
ble the  pea  flower ;  and  the  large,  stone-hard  seeds  are  borne 
in  pods  that  look  like  very  big  pea  pods.     The  tree  grows 
in  rich  woods,  especially  in  river  bottoms,  but  it  is  not  very 
common. 

7.  Other  types  of  compound  leaves  are  the  palmate,  or 
hand-shaped  leaves  of  the  Virginia  creeper  and  the  trifolio- 
late  leaves  of  clover.     What  does  trifoliolate  mean?     Can 
you  mention  other  plants  that  have  compound  leaves  ?    Are 
they  pinnate,  palmate,  or  trifoliolate  ?     Can  you  tell,  from 
the  position  of  the  buds,  if  the  leaves  will  stand  opposite, 
or  alternate  ? 

§  45.    Insect  Injuries  to  Foliage. 

MATERIAL  :  Galls  on  oak  leaves,  rosettes  of  willows,  leaves  folded 
by  caterpillars  and  plant  lice,  tents  of  caterpillars,  deformed  petioles 
of  cottonwood  leaves,  and  other  material.  Names  are  of  little  impor- 
tance in  this  lesson ;  the  object  is  to  show  the  children  how  largely  and 
variously  foliage  is  injured  by  insects. 

Not  only  the  leaves  of  small  plants  are  eaten  by  insects, 
but  sometimes  large  trees  and  even  whole  groves  are  en- 
Find  places  where  ferns,  horsetails,  mosses,  lichens,  mushrooms,  and 
puff-balls  grow. 


234        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

tirely  defoliated  by  them.  Grasshoppers,  caterpillars,  the 
larvae  of  sawflies  and  beetles,  are  all  very  voracious  and 
become  exceedingly  injurious  when  they  appear  in  large 
numbers. 

But  even  such  small  insects  as  plant  lice,  of  which 
many  species  are  known,  may  cause  much  injury.  Although 
they  can  suck  only  the  sap  of  plants,  they  cause  the  leaves 
to  crumple,  to  form  wart-like  growth,  or  to  become  abnor- 
mal in  other  ways.  Such  injured  leaves,  even  if  they  remain 
green,  are  of  little  or  no  use  to  the  plant.  Folded  leaves 
generally  provide  both  shelter  and  food  for  the  insects. 
Some  of  the  injurious  insects,  such  as  the  red  spiders  on 
house  plants,  are  so  small  that  a  cursory  observer  may  fail  to 
detect  them. 

Some  small  flies  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  tissue  of  leaves. 
With  the  developing  insect  a  gall,  or  apple,  develops,  which 
furnishes  the  young  larvae  food  and  shelter.  Each  gallfly 
selects  certain  parts  of  a  certain  plant  and  makes  galls  that 
are  different  from  the  galls  of  any  other  species.  The  galls 
of  gallflies  are  closed  and  the  larvae  transform  within  them 
or  eat  their  way  out  and  transform  in  the  ground.  Galls 
made  by  mites  and  plant  lice  have  an  opening.  It  is  thought 
that  some  poison  secreted  by  the  adult  insects  or  by  the 
hatched  larvae  causes  the  abnormal  growth  which  forms  the 
galls. 

Trees  whose  foliage  is  much  injured  by  insects  bear 
little  or  no  fruit,  because  their  food  is  used  up  in  producing 
new  leaves.  In  forest  trees  the  injury  consists  in  a  reduced 
production  of  wood,  and  defoliated  trees  along  streets  and 
in  parks  look  bad  and  give  no  shade. 

See  Comstock's  Manual ;  Saunders,  Insects  Injurious  to  Fruits  ; 
Harris,  Insects  Injurious  to  Vegetation  ;  your  State  Reports.  Farmers' 
Bulletin  No.  19,  Important  Insecticides. 


THE   WOODS  IN  THEIR   SUMMER   FOLIAGE         235 

§  46.    The  Fruit  of  Trees,  Shrubs,  and  Vines. 

MATERIAL  :  Fruit  and  fruit-bearing  twigs  of  all  species  to  be  studied  ; 
twigs  with  small  fruit  to  be  added  to  the  school  herbarium  ;  large  seeds 
to  be  kept  in  boxes.  Dissemination  of  seeds  is  important.  From  the 
larger  seeds  remove  the  coverings  and  try  to  find  the  germ-leaves,  the 
first  leaflets,  and  the  radicle,  or  rootlet.  Plant  the  seeds  and  observe 
the  young  trees. 

1.  We  observed  last  spring  that  the  little  pods  on  the 
fertile  catkins  of  willows,  of  the  quaking  asp,  and  of  the 
cottonwood  soon  opened  and  shed  a  large  amount  of  fine 
white  cotton.     Closer  inspection  showed  a  tiny  seed  attached 
to  each  tuft  of  cotton,  and  by  means'  of  these  tufts  the  seeds 
often  sail  many  miles  and  are  dropped  everywhere.     If  they 
happen  to  fall  on  bare,  moist  ground,  they  will  grow  at  once. 
Later,  in  July  and  August,  I  observed  thousands  of  young 
willows,  asps,  and  cottonwoods  growing  on  the  moist  sand 
banks  near  lakes  and  rivers.     Where  a  tract  of  forest  has 
been  burned,  a  poplar  thicket  will  almost  invariably  succeed 
the  burned  trees.     Later  other  trees  slowly  return,  and  in 
course  of  time  kill  out  the  poplars  or  take  the  place  of  those 
which  die  of  old  age,  as  the  poplars  are  short-lived ;  but  it 
probably  takes  from  thirty  to  fifty  years  before  this  change 
is  well  under  way.     Why  do  such  small  and  light  seeds  as 
those  of  willows  and  poplars  have  a  better  chance  of  finding 
a  suitable  place  early  in  spring  than  later  in  the  season  ? 
How  are  bare  sand  banks  and  mud  flats  near  rivers  made  ? 

2.  The  seeds  of  elms  and  birches  are  little  nutlets  pro- 
vided with  a  winged  margin,  by  means  of  which  they  are 
carried  considerable  distances  from  the  trees.     When  were 
the  elm  seeds  ripe  ?    When  were  the  birch  seeds  shaken  out 
of  the  catkins  ?     The  seeds  of  ashes  and  maples  are  also 
provided  with  wings,  and  if  you  drop  some  from  a  second  or 
third  story  window,  you  can  observe  how  they  sail.    As  these 
trees  grow  o£ten  near  streams,  their  seeds  frequently  drop 


236         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

into  the  water,  are  carried  away  by  the  current,  and  finally 
dropped  on  sand  banks  and  mud  flats,  where  they  can  grow. 
Maple  seeds  are  dropped  as  soon  as  they  are  ripe,  but  on 
some  species  of  ash  the  seeds  remain  through  the  winter. 

3.  Fruits  which  consist  of  hard  seeds  covered  by  a  soft 
juicy  flesh  are  called  berries.     Of  this  type  are  the  wild 
grapes,  the  fruit  of  the  Virginia  creeper,  the  blueberry,  the 
gooseberry,  the  currants,  and  the  fruit  of  the  hackberry  tree. 
You  can  easily  explain  why  such  fruits  as  cherries  and  plums 
are  called  stone  fruits.     In  the  cultivated  and  in  the  wild 
apples  the  flesh  is  really  an  enlargement  of  the  calyx.     You 
will  see  this  if  you  split  an  apple  lengthwise.      Berries, 
stone  fruits,  and  the  small  wild  apples  depend  on  birds  for  dis- 
semination.    Before  they  are  ripe,  they  are  green  like  the 
leaves,  and  very  sour ;  but  when  they  are  ready  to  be  planted, 
they  invite  the  feathered  gardeners  by  a  more  or  less  sweet 
taste  and  make  themselves  conspicuous  by  a  black,  blue,  red, 
and  occasionally  by  a  white  color.     Why  would  yellow  not 
be  a  good  color  to  attract  the  birds  ?     The  birds  swallow 
the  small  fruits  entire;  the  fleshy  parts  are  digested,  but 
the  hard  seeds  pass  through  the  birds  uninjured.   As  not  only 
winter  and  summer  residents  feed  on  such  fruits,  but  also 
the  flocks  of  migrating  birds,  seeds  are  frequently  dropped 
a  hundred  miles,  or  more,  from  the  place  where  they  grew. 
How  could  birds  plant  wild  plums  ? 

4.  Such  large  and  heavy  seeds  as  acorns  and  nuts  drop 
right  under  the  tree,  and  would  remain  there  and  decay  if 
gophers,  mice,  chipmunks,  and  squirrels  did  not  covet  them. 
These   animals  often  drop   them   accidentally,  hide   them 
under  leaves  or  in  their  burrows  for  their  winter  food,  and 
while  engaged  in  this  work  they  leave  some  in  places  where 
they  can  grow.     The  writer  once  shot  a  gray  squirrel  and 
found  that  it  had  a  hickory  nut  still  in  its  mouth  when  he 
reached  home  with  it.      As  hawks  frequently  catch  such 


THE  WOODS   IN   THEIR   SUMMER  FOLIAGE         237 

animals,  they,  no  doubt,  often  plant  seeds,  which  their  prey 
happened  to  be  carrying. 

Many  birds  and  mammals  depend  on  trees  and  shrubs  for 
their  food  and  for  shelter.  Do  they  in  turn  render  any  impor- 
tant service  to  the  plants  which  feed  and  shelter  them  ?  What 
becomes  of  the  young  trees  and  shrubs  that  happen  to  grow 
right  under  the  old  ones  ?  Have  you  ever  observed  the 
flowers  that  grow  on  burnt-over  timber  land? 


VII 

THE   WOODS   IN   AUTUMN.      SEPTEMBER 
AND    OCTOBER 

§  47.    Trees  in  their  Autumn  Foliage. 

MATERIAL  :  Leaves  and  twigs  of  various  trees  and  shrubs  with 
autumn  foliage;  bouquets  of 'leaves  from  the  scarlet  oak,  Virginia 
creeper,  sugar  maple,  sumach,  ash,  and  others  may  be  made  very 
ornamental  in  the  schoolroom.  If  possible,  teacher  and  pupil  should 
take  a  walk  to  the  woods  and  enjoy  the  beauty  of  the  autumn  foliage. 
Let  the  children  describe  an  autumn  landscape,  which  they  have  ob- 
served. Add  the  most  conspicuously  colored  leaves  to  your  school 
herbarium.  After  this  chapter  has  been  studied,  different  pupils 
might  write  up  a  complete  life  history  and  description  of  different 
trees,  shrubs,  or  vines.  If  they  can  illustrate  these  with  simple  draw- 
ings or  paintings,  they  will  be  all  the  more  interesting.  In  most  cases 
the  teacher  should  give  carefully  prepared  outlines  to  the  pupils,  who 
should  also  have  access  to  the  school  herbarium. 

The  working  out  of  the  suggested  lesson  is  left  to  the  teacher. 

§  48.    Some  Plants  that  have  No  Flowers. 

In  early  spring  we  went  to  the  woods  for  such  flowers  as 
Jack-in-the-pulpit,  wild  ginger,  hepatica,  rue  anemone,  and 
bloodroot.  In  autumn  we  find  none  but  very  inconspicuous 
flowers  in  places  where  the  above-named  flowers  with  a 
number  of  others  told  us  that  the  long,  dreary  winter 
had  come  to  an"  end.  The  explanation  of  this  absence  of 
flowers  is  plain  enough.  These  places  are  so  densely  shaded 
through  the  whole  summer  that  only  shade-loving  plants 
will  flourish  there.  But  here  again  we  see  that  nature  has 
filled  every  nook  and  cranny  with  an  abundance  of  life 

Observations.  —  Study  the  foliage,  fruit,  and  mode  of  branching  of  the 
pine,  the  Norway  spruce,  or  some  other  evergreen. 


THE   WOODS   IN  AUTUMN  239 

whenever  moisture  is  not  altogether  absent.  Even  light, 
although  necessary  for  all  green  plants,  is  not  absolutely 
needed  for  mushrooms  and  those  animals  which  have  be- 
come adapted  to  living  in  caves  or  in  the  absolutely  dark 
abyss  of  the  ocean.  It  is  true  that  in  the  dense  shade  of 
thick  woods,  farmers  cannot  raise  potatoes,  wheat,  or  corn, 
nor  would  we  look  in  such  places  for  sunflowers  and  golden- 
rods,  for  all  these  plants  love  the  bright  sunlight.  If,  how- 
ever, we  wish  to  find  the  delicate  fronds  of  the  maidenhair 
fern  or  the  pigmies  among  land  plants,  the  mosses  or  the 
gray  and  ever  old-looking  lichens,  then  the  shady  woods  are 
the  very  places  to  go  to. 

§  49.    Ferns  and  Horsetails. 

MATERIAL  :  As  many  different  kinds  of  ferns  as  you  can  find.  With 
a  stout  knife  or  with  a  hatchet  dig  up  the  creeping  rootstock  of  the 
species  you  find.  Names  of  species  are  of  little  importance  to  your 
pupils.  Fruiting  and  sterile  horsetails. 

Among  the  most  common  and  best-known  ferns  are  the 
Brake,  or  Bracken  (Pteris  aquilina),  the  Maidenhair  Fern 
(Adiantum  pedatum),  and  Clayton's  Fern  (Osmunda  Clay- 
tonid). 

The  last  mentioned  is  very  common  in  moist  places.  In 
the  vicinity  of  St.  Paul  it  grows  abundantly  around  the 
numerous  ponds  in  the  oak  woods.  On  the  fertile  leaves 
some  of  the  leaflets  are  entirely  converted  into  spore  cases. 
These  spore  cases  contain  a  green  dust,  the  spores.  When 
the  spores  are  ripe  and  fall  out  of  the  spherical  cases,  scat- 
ter a  little  of  the  dust  on  moist  earth  in  a  small  flower  pot, 
then  cover  the  soil  with  an  inverted  drinking  glass  and  keep 
it  moist,  but  not  wet.  Very  soon  the  earth,  which  should  be 
somewhat  firmly  packed,  will  appear  more  or  less  green  on 
account  of  a  large  number  of  minute  heart-shaped  plants 

Visit  a  sawmill  and  a  lumber-yard. 


240 


HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 


which  grow  flat  on  the  ground.     This  heart-shaped  plantlet, 
called  a  prothallus,  is  the  first  state  of  a  fern.     From  some 


FIG.  44.     CLAYTON'S  FERN.     Osmunda  Claytonia. 

A  part  of  a  fertile  frond,  much  reduced  ;  to  the  right,  some  spore  cases, 
slightly  enlarged. 


THE    WOODS   IN  AUTUMN 


241 


of  the  prothalli,  small  leaf-like  fronds  are  developed,  which 
will,  however,  not  attain  their  full  size  until  they  are  several 
years  old.  When  they  are  mature,  they  again  produce  the 


FIG.  45.    BRAKE,  OR  BRACKEN.    Pteris  aqmlina. 

A  part  of  the  frond,  much  reduced ;  to  the  left  a  small  piece  of  the  frond 
seen  from  below,  about  natural  size. 

masses  of  green  spores.  For  various  reasons  your  prothalli 
are  not  very  likely  to  develop  leafy  fronds,  but  they  may, 
if  you  keep  them  ]om?  enough  and  if  they  are  not  too 


242 


HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 


crowded.  It  is  very  difficult  to  find  these  fern  prothalli  out- 
doors, but  they  do  frequently  occur  near  ferns  in  green- 
houses. The  above  gives  you  a  part  of  the  life  history  of 
every  fern.  The  life  history  of  non-flowering  plants  is  ex- 


FIG.  46.    MAIDENHAIR  FERN.    Adiantum  pedatum. 

A  part  of  the  frond  in  the  centre,  much  reduced ;  to  the  left  and  to  the 
right  pieces  of  the  frond  seen  from  below,  the  former  natural  size,  the 
latter  enlarged. 

ceedingly  interesting,  but  it  cannot  be  thoroughly  studied 
without  a  compound  microscope. 

Another  fern  common  in  and  around  rather  sunny  woods 
is  the  Brake.  It  is  our  largest  fern,  and  frequently  attains 
a  height  of  four  feet.  The  long  stalk  bears  a  large  tripar- 


THE   WOODS   IN  AUTUMN  243 

tite  leaf,  and  each  of  the  parts  is  doubly  pinnate.  The 
brake  has  brown  spores  and  spore  cases,  which  are  found 
under  the  reflexed  margins  of  the  leaves. 

Among  the  prettiest  of  our  ferns  is  the  Maidenhair, 
which  is  only  found  in  damp,  shady  woods.  The  dark, 
chestnut-brown,  or  nearly  black,  stem  is  sometimes  about  ten 
to  twelve  inches  long,  but  often  much  shorter.  Its  two 
branches  divide  into  many  polished  thread-like  branchlets, 
which  have  suggested  the  pretty  comparison  expressed  in 
the  name  of  this  plant.  The  shining  branchlets  are  studded 
with  two  rows  of  the  most  delicate  leaflets,  under  whose 
reflexed  margins  the  spore  cases  will  be  found  in  little 
patches.  The  rootstock,  which  is  about  as  slender  as  the 
leafstalk,  creeps  along  under  ground ;  it  is  provided  with  a 
great  number  of  chaffy  scales  and  has  roots  along  its  whole 
length.  Compare  the  rootstocks  of  Clayton's  fern  and  of 
the  brake  with  this  rootstock. 

Ferns  furnish  very  good  material  for  drawing  and  for 
school  herbariums ;  the  live  plants,  as  well  as  carefully 
pressed  fronds,  are  very  ornamental. 

§  50.  Another  class  of  flowerless  plants  which  may  be 
mentioned  here  are  the  horsetails.  Many  of  them  resemble 
a  miniature  pine  tree  in  their  mode  of  branching;  others 
have  no  branches,  but  all  consist  of  many  nodes,  or  joints, 
which  can  be  easily  pulled  apart.  Some  species  produce 
fruiting  stems  very  early  in  spring.  These  stems  are  only  a 
few  inches  tall  and  not  green,  but  of  a  brownish-white  color. 
They  carry  a  head,  whose  form  is  suggestive  of  a  very  small 
pine  cone.  These  heads  carry  the  spores,  which,  when  shaken 
from  a  mature  head,  often  cling  together  in.  masses  by  means 
of  flue  ribbons,  with  which  they  are  provided.  The  species 
just  described  produce  green,  sterile  stems  later  in  the  sea- 
son. Other  horsetails  produce  sterile  and  fruiting  stems, 


244         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

which  resemble  each  other.  These  kinds  produce  the  dark, 
spore-bearing  heads  in  early  summer.  The  spores  develop 
in  a  manner  similar  to  those  of  the  ferns. 

You  will  find  horsetails  common  on  moist  meadows  and 
in  shallow  water;  some  also  grow  in  rather  dry  soil,  into 
which  they  penetrate  to  a  great  depth. 

All  ferns  and  horsetails  in  the  temperate  zones  are  small 
plants  and  are  of  little  importance  in  nature;  but  in  a 
former  period  of  the  earth's  history,  when  the  coal  now 
mined  in  the  coal  beds  was  deposited,  vast  marshy  forests, 
as  large  as  our  present  prairies,  extended  over  parts  of  this 
continent  and  Europe.  These  forests  consisted  largely  of 
plants  which  in  structure  closely  resembled  our  present 
ferns  and  horsetails,  but  were  of  gigantic  tree-like  size. 

However  strange  arid  beautiful  these'  forests  and  their 
foliage  must  have  been,  they  lacked  nearly  all  of  the  cheer- 
ful change  and  manifold  life  of  modern  woods.  No  autumn 
ever  lavished  its  glowing  colors  on  them ;  for  many  centu- 
ries they  stood  in  the  same  monotonous  green ;  no  flowers 
and  butterflies  enlivened  mossy  knolls ;  no  birds  ever  perched 
and  sang  on  the  grand  fronds. 

§  51.    Mosses  and  Lichens. 

MATERIAL  :  The  species  illustrated,  or  any  species  that  can  be 
found ;  lichens  gathered  on  the  ground,  on  stones,  and  on  the  bark 
of  trees  ;  dried  tufts  of  mosses  and  patches  of  lichens  should  be 
moistened  in  presence  of  the  children,  to  show  how  quickly  moisture 
revives  the  shrivelled  plants,  and  how  much  moisture  the  mosses  can 
absorb  ;  pieces  of  wet  and  of  dried  peat. 

To  give  the  life  history  of  any  moss  in  detail  would  not 
be  within  the  scope  of  this  book.  Suffice  it  to  say  that 
the  little  capsules,  which  may  be  found  on  mosses  at  almost 
any  time,  are  the  spore  cases,  and  contain  green  or  brown 
spores.  If  the  spores  are  shed  on  moist  ground,  they  de- 
velop a  growth  of  green  threads,  and  from  these  green 


THE   WOODS  IN  AUTUMN 


245 


threads  the  leafy  stems  are  again  produced.  The  light 
spores  are  shed  in  dry  weather,  are  wafted  about  in  all 
directions  by  the  winds,  and  germinate  in  all  moist  and 
shady  places.  The  teacher  who  has  a  good  hand  lens 
might  try  to  make  out  some  of  the  structural  beauty  of 
moss  capsules  and  leaves. 

The  Bare-soil  Moss  (Funaria  hygrometrica  Sibth.)  may 
be  found  in  spring  and  summer  on  moist  clayey  soil 
which  has  been  recently  laid 
bare.  Look  for  it  on  that 
side  of  street  and  railway  cuts 
which  is  exposed  to  the  north. 

The  large  Hair  Moss  (Poly- 
trichum  commune  L.)  can  be 
found  in  patches  near  swamps 
and  in  damp  woods. 

Among  the  most  important 
moss  in  the  economy  of  nature 
is  the  common  Peat  Moss 
(Sphagnum  cymbi folium 
Ehrh.).  It  covers  many  square 
miles  of  swamps,  both  in  this 
country  as  well  as  in  Europe. 

Besides  the  green  mosses 
which  you  find  on  moist  soil, 
and  on  decaying  wood  and 
bark  everywhere,  you  must  have  noticed  on  the  soil,  on 
rocks,  on  the  bark  of  trees,  and  on  wood,  a  grayish  growth, 
which  sometimes  appears  in  closely  adhering  patches,  some- 
times presents  a  hairy  or  leaf-like  form,  the  latter  often 
looking  like  bits  of  old  crumpled  paper.  These  are 
Lichens.  They  are  generally  gray  in  color,  but  you  will 
find  on  them  yellow,  dark,  or  red  spots  and  cups.  These 
spots  and  cups  contain  the  spore  sacs  of  the  lichen.  The 


hygrometrica. 

a,  whole  plant,  slightly  enlarged  ; 
6,  reduced ;  c,  a  capsule  with 
cap  still  adhering,  slightly  en- 
larged. 


246 


HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 


Iceland  moss,  which  you  can  buy  in  every  drug  store,  is  a 
lichen,  as  is  also  the  reindeer  moss,  about  which  you  have 

probably  heard. 

Scholars  who  have  given 
many  years  to  the  study 
of  mosses  and  lichens  have 
found  hundreds  of  species 
of  each  group ;  but  the 
principal  question  with  us 
is  the  importance  of  these 
plants  in  the  economy  of 
nature. 

They  are  the  first  plants 
which  appear  on  bare  rocks, 
where  no  life  could  exist 
before  them. 

Soon  the  lower  parts  of 
mosses  die,  but  the  dead 
rootlets  and  stems  furnish 
a  better  soil  for  the  green 
tufts  on  top.  This  thin 
turf  holds  the  rain  water 
for  some  time,  and  also 
catches  dust  and  sand 
which  the  winds  drop  on 
it.  Thus  a  thin  layer  of 
soil  is  formed,  in  which 
larger  plants  can  find  a 
footing,  and  in  which  in- 
sects and  worms  can  bur- 


FIG.  48. 

To  the  left,  three   plants  of    Poly- 
trichum     commune,    slightly     re- 


row. 

Of  great   importance  for 


duced;    to  the    right,    a    plant  of     man    Qre    tj(e       eat    mosses, 

Nnhnnniim      rtintnifnhiim       slurht.lv 


Sphagnum    cymbifolium,    slightly 
reduced. 


For    hundreds    and    thou- 


THE    WOODS   IN   AUTUMN  247 

sands  of  years  these  have  covered  the  extensive  peat  swamps 
in  our  Northern  States  and  in  Europe,  this  year's  plants 
growing  on  the  dead  generation  of  last  year.  Together 
with  the  partially  decayed  remains  of  grasses  and  other 
swamp  plants,  they  have  formed  layers  of  peat  from  a  few 
feet  to  forty  feet  thick. 

In  Europe  this  peat  is  cut  or  baked  into  bricks,  and  much 
used  for  fuel ;  and  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when  this 
treasure  of  nature  will  be  more  extensively  used  in  our 
country. 

Mosses,  as  we  have  seen,  are  good  absorbents  of  moisture. 
They  prevent  the  too  rapid  drainage  and  drying  of  the  soil, 
and  thus  exert  a  great  influence  upon  the  water  supply  of 
streams  and  upon  the  life  of  higher  plants.  Seeds  of  wild 
flowers,  shrubs,  and  trees  are  frequently  embedded  in  moss, 
which  retains  the  moisture  long  enough  to  cause  the  seeds 
to  germinate,  while  on  bare  soil  the  delicate  leaflets  and 
rootlets  would,  in  most  cases,  dry  up  and  die. 

Mosses  and  lichens  are  also  important  for  animal  life.  In 
the  woods  you  will  find  worms,  insects,  and  insect  larvae 
under  the  moist  green  turf ;  but  in  Labrador  and  in  the  far 
north  of  British  America,  where  trees  and  grasses  do  not 
grow,  mosses  and  lichens  cover  the  ground  as  far  as  the  eye 
can  reach. 

As  the  great  grass  plains  formerly  were  the  pasture  of 
vast  herds  of  buffaloes,  and  now  feed  millions  of  sheep  and 
cattle,  thus  the  great  moss  and  lichen  plains  support  vast 
herds  of  caribou  and  musk  oxen.  In  the  high  north  of 
Europe  the  Lapps  herd  their  reindeer  on  the  large  moss  and 
lichen  meadows.  The  teacher  might  tell  the  pupils  about 
the  life  of  the  Lapps,  and  about  the  habits  of  the  American 
reindeer,  or  caribou. 


248  HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE   STUDY 

§  52.    Fungi. 

MATERIAL:  Different  kinds  of  mushrooms,  or  toadstools;  puff- 
balls  ;  some  hard  pore  fungi  growing  on  old  stumps.  Also  show  some 
of  the  thread-like  or  felt-like  growth,  which  may  be  found  in  or  on  the 
ground  or  in  dead  wood,  where  these  fungi  grow.  See  Farmers' 
Bulletin  No.  53,  How  to  Grow  Mushrooms. 

All  of  you,  children,  have  found  mushrooms;  and  some 
have  told  me  that  you  could  find  many  more  after  a  rain  in 
the  fall.  Have  you  ever  tried  to  find  the  roots  and  seeds 
when  you  found  large  specimens,  in  places  where  you  saw 


FIG.  49.     A  COMMON  MUSHBLOM. 
About  one-half  natural  size. 

none  the  day  before  ?  Where  did  they  come  from  ?  How 
did  they  grow  ? 

Non-flowering  plants  which  have  no  green  tissue  are  catted 
fungi.  People  commonly  call  the  large  edible  fungi  mush- 
rooms, while  they  call  the  poisonous  kinds  toadstools.  This 
is,  however,  not  a  good  classification ;  and  it  would  be  better 
to  speak  of  edible  and  poisonous  mushrooms. 

What  a  rich  mushroom  flora  we  found  on  our  trip  to  the 
damp  woods.  Some  had  heads  larger  than  big  sandwiches, 
while  others  were  tiny  creatures  growing  on  dead  leaves, 
and  their  heads  were  scarcely  as  large  as  one  half  of  a  pea. 


THE    WOODS   IN  AUTUMN  249 

In   color  they  vied  with  the  flowers,  showing   nearly  all 
shades  from  white  and  red  to  black. 

Now  examine  the  lower  side  of  the  umbrella-shaped 
heads.  We  find  that  some  have  many  ray-like  gills  running 
from  the  stem  in  the  centre  to  the  margin ;  others  show  a 
layer  of  small  tubes  instead  of  the  gills.  About  an  hour 
ago  I  cut  off  a  mushroom  head,  close  to  the  gills,  and  placed 
the  head  on  a  piece  of  white  paper.  Now  I  find  a  layer  of 
dust-like  spores  on  the  paper,  which  are  arranged  like  the 
gills.  If  I  had  not  told  you  what  I  was  going  to  show  you, 
you  would  probably  have  taken  the  figure  on  the  paper  for 
a  pencil  drawing.  These  spores  are  the  seeds  of  the  mush- 
rooms. They  germinate  in  the  ground 
or  in  decaying  wood,  and  form  a  tissue 
of  thousands  of  fine  threads.  At  the 
time  of  fruiting,  many  of  these  threads 
grow  together,  and  produce  the  well- 
known  heads  above  ground.  The 

threads,    which    are    called    mycelium. 

'  .  FIG.  50.  A  PUFFBALL. 

absorb     food     from    decaying     matter, 

J      &  Reduced, 

because  plants  without  leaf-green  can- 
not absorb  carbon  dioxide  from  the  air.  Have  the  mush- 
rooms any  true  roots  ?  The  puff  balls  have  no  gills,  but  their 
interior  is  filled  with  a  mass  of  spores.  The  pore  fungi 
grow  mostly  on  stumps  and  trees  in  semicircular  or  irregu- 
lar masses.  Their  tissue  is  more  or  less  woody ;  their 
mycelium  can  be  found  in  the  wood  on  which  they  grow. 
The  mycelium  of  fungi  remains  alive  in  the  substratum 
from  year  to  year,  but  the  heads  of  most  kinds  appear 
only  at  a  certain  season. 

If  we  are  careful  observers  of  nature,  our  attention  must 
be  attracted  by  the  quick  and  absolute  disappearance  of 
fungi,  as  well  as  by  their  sudden  appearance. 

Cattle,  sheep,  deer,  squirrels,  mice,  and  snails  eat  them. 


250        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

Many  flies  deposit  their  eggs  on  old  specimens ;  a  fact  which 
explains  why  these  are  always  full  of  maggots.  In  decay, 
which  is  very  rapid,  they  emit  an  odor  like  that  of  putrid 
meat. 

Many  of  our  common  mushrooms  are  edible,  and  it  is  to 
be  regretted  that  they  are  so  little  used.  We  should,  of 
course,  not  eat  any  mushrooms  unless  we  know  that  they 
are  harmless,  because  several  species  are  very  poisonous.  In 
districts  where  mushrooms  are  common,  the  teacher  should 
make  herself  and  pupils  acquainted  with  the  more  common 
edible  species.  For  this  purpose,  see  Peck,  "  Mushrooms." 

We  have  learned  that  the  fungi  quickly  convert  decaying 
wood  and  leaves  into  wholesome  food  for  man  and  animals. 
Their  own  tissue  decays  rapidly,  and  thus  enriches  the  soil, 
and  furnishes  food  for  other  plants. 

§  53.   About  a  Few  Other  Fungi. 

MATERIAL  :    Wheat  rust  on  leaves  ;  sraut  of  corn  ;  black  and  blue 
moulds  on  bread.     With  the  necessary  explanations  this  lesson  might 
be  given  after  the  Grains. 
• 

Every  farmer  boy  knows  that  in  wet  seasons,  wheat  and 
other  small  grain  is  apt  to  suffer  much  from  rust.  The 
brown  dust  which  you  can  shake  from  the  grain  forms  the 
spores  of  a  very  small  plant,  which  grows  in  the  tissue  of 
green  grain  and  can  be  seen  as  brown  spots.  There  are 
many  different  kinds  of  rusts  and  they  affect  many  differ- 
ent plants.  The  black  masses  of  smut  are  also  spores  of 
microscopic  plants.  Plants  that  grow  in  or  on  the  live  tis- 
sue of  other  plants  are  called  parasitic  plants.  Eust,  smut, 
blight,  on  lilac  and  willows  are  parasites  in  the  plant  world. 
Do  you  know  of  any  parasites  in  the  animal  world  ?  Have 
you  ever  seen  any  parasitic  plants  that  bore  flowers  ?  The 
dodders,  which  form  tangles  of  yellowish  or  brown  threads 
on  wild  sunflowers,  wild  touch-me-not,  and  willows  are  such 


THE   WOODS  IN  AUTUMN  251 

parasitic  flowering  plants.  Look  for  them  along  the  banks 
of  streams  and  in  other  moist  and  somewhat  shaded  places. 
Besides  the  fungi  mentioned  above,  we  must  not  omit  the 
various  kinds  of  moulds  which  grow  on  bread  and  other  eat- 
ables. Dust  some  of  the  black  or  blue  spores  of  mould  on  a 
piece  of  moist  bread  and  keep  the  bread  under  a  water  glass. 
Within  twenty-four  hours  you  can  see  the  white  mycelium 
of  the  mould  on  the  bread. 

For  the  life  history  of  the  fungi  mentioned  here  see  Bessey,  Botany  : 
Briefer  Course.     Henry  Holt  and  Company,  New  York. 


VIII 

EVERGREENS,  OR  PINES  AND  PINE  FORESTS. 
NOVEMBER 

§  54.   The  White  Pine.     Pinus  Strobus. 

MATERIAL:  Young  shoots  with  staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  in 
sixty  per  cent  alcohol  or  pressed  ;  cones  at  different  stages  of  develop- 
ment; leafy  twigs;  bark  of  stem  and  wood.  Outdoor  observations. 
The  white  pine  has  flowers  in  June.  Almost  every  teacher  can  pro- 
cure material  of  this  lesson  from  Christmas  trees. 

We  have  learned  about  a  number  of  trees  that  shed  their 
leaves  in  fall,  and  have  also  learned  a  little  about  the  forests 
and  groves  they  form.  To-day  we  shall  study  a  tree  which 
looks  very  different  from  an  oak,  maple,  ash,  or  poplar. 
These  twigs,  flowers,  and  cones  grew  on  the  white  pine,  a 
tree  which  has  perhaps  furnished  lumber  for  more  homes  in 
our  Northern  States  than  any  other  tree.  In  northern  Min- 
nesota, in  Wisconsin  and  Michigan,  and  in  Canada  this  tree 
often  forms  large  and  dense  forests,  in  which  the  trees  attain 
a  height  of  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  feet  and  a  diameter 
of  ten  feet.  Tell  me  how  many  times  as  high  as  our  school- 
house  such  an  old  giant  tree  would  be,  and  how  many  of 
them  could  stand  on  a  space  as  large  as  this  floor. 

After  a  similar  introduction  the  teacher  should  bring  out 
the  following  points  by  comparing  the  white  pine  with  an 
oak,  a  poplar,  or  any  other  deciduous  tree :  — 

•1.  Regular  mode  of  branching,  which  approximately  shows 
the  age  of  young  trees. 

Observations.  —  Are  there  still  birds  in  woods  and  fields? 
252 


PINES  AND  PINE  FORESTS  253 

2.  The  shape,  color,  and  arrangement  of  the  foliage. 

3.  The  soft,  easy-splitting,  and  resinous  wood. 

4.  Striking  differences  between  evergreens  and  deciduous 
trees. 


FIG.  51.    SPRAY  OF  WHITE  PINE  WITH  YOUNG  CONE. 
Below,  a  bundle  of  five  leaves.    Both  nearly  natural  size. 

The  little  catkins  around  the  base  of  this  young  shoot 
carry  the  stamens.  About  the  middle  of  June,  when  they 
are  mature,  they  shed  a  yellow  pollen  and  then  wither  and 
fall  off,  as  we  have  observed.  The  small  green  bodies  at- 

Observe  woodpeckers,  chickadees,  blue  jays,  hawks,  and  owls. 


254         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

tached  to  the  ends  of  young  shoots  are  the  staminate  flowers, 
in  which  each  young  ovule  is  protected  by  a  scale.  For  these 
we  also  looked  in  June  and  found  them  mostly  near  the  top 
of  the  trees,  where  the  boys  picked  them ;  but  we  found  far 
more  staminate  flowers  than  pistillate  ones. 

From  our  observations  made  on  other  trees,  we  knew 
at  once  that  the  young  cones,  as  the  fruit  of  pine  trees  is 
called,  had  the  pollen  carried  to  them  by  the  wind.  Al- 
though, to  judge  from  the  abundance  of  pollen  produced, 
the  cones  must  have  been  fertilized,  they  grew  much  less 
during  the  summer  than  we  had  expected.  But  John  thinks 
he  has  solved  the  problem  about  the  slow  growth  of  these 
cones.  He  found  some  twigs  that  bore  these  small  cones  at 
the  tip,  but  bore  mature  cones  with  seeds  at  the  base  of  the 
season's  growth.  He  has  concluded  that  these  cones  do  not 
mature  until  the  second  autumn  after  their  appearance. 
Examine  carefully  the  material  he  brought  and  tell  me 
what  you  think  about  his  conclusion. 

In  the  mature  cones  we  find  one  or  two  seeds  under  each 
scale.  These  seeds  are  provided  with  a  thin  wing,  by  means 
of  which  they  can  sail  considerable  distances  on  the  wind. 
Do  you  know  at  what  time  the  mature  cones  open  ?  Of 
what  advantage  is  it  to  the  tree  to  have  the  cones  near  the 
top? 

§  55.  Besides  the  white  pine,  the  Red  Pine  (Pinus  resfnosa) 
and  the  Labrador  Pine  (Pinus  Bariksiana)  are  common  in  the 
Northern  States  and  in  Canada,  the  latter  often  forming 
large  forests.  Farther  south  and  along  the  eastern  coast 
other  species  take  their  place.  The  range  of  the  white  pine 
is  from  Newfoundland  to  Manitoba,  south  along  the  Alle- 
ghenies  to  Georgia,  and  to  Illinois  and  Iowa. 

If  evergreens  are  common  in  the  neighborhood,  the  teacher 
ought  to  make  himself  and  pupils  acquainted  with  most  of 


PINES  AND   PINE   FORESTS  255 

them.  Where  conifers  do  not  grow  wild,  very  good  material 
is  furnished  by  the  Norway  Spruce  and  the  Scotch  Pine, 
which  are  often  planted  for  ornament. 

To  the  pine  family  belong  also  the  Tamarack,  the  Spruces, 
and  the  Firs.  Spruces  and  firs  are  most  commonly  sold  as 
Christmas  trees.  The  leaves  of  the  spruces  are  set  all 
around  the  branchlets ;  those  of  the  fir  appear  two-ranked 
like  the  teeth  of  a  comb. 

If  the  Norway  spruce  or  the  Scotch  pine  are  made  the 
basis  of  the  lesson,  material  similar  to  that  for  this  lesson 
must  be  procured ;  and  the  teacher  must  work  from  a  care- 
fully constructed  outline  and  must  have  directed  the  chil- 
dren to  observe  the  trees  while  they  are  flowering.  The 
flowers  of  the  Norway  spruce  appear  in  May;  those  of  the 
Scotch  pine  probably  early  in  June.  Where  groves  of  some 
kinds  of  pines  are  not  accessible,  the  teacher  may  take  a 
Christmas  tree  for  the  object  of  the  lesson,  and  give  the 
children  some1  idea  about  pine  forests  by  means  of  pictures, 
which  can  be  selected  from  different  sources. 

§  56.    Pine  Forests  and  Forests  of  Deciduous  Trees  Compared. 

MATERIAL  :  A  walk  to  a  grove  of  pines,  if  one  is  accessible.  A  col- 
lection of  twigs,  cones,  and  flowers  of  all  the  trees  of  the  pine  family 
which  the  neighborhood  affords  ;  plants  and  dried  berries  of  winter- 
green  ;  blueberry  and  other  plants  characteristic  of  the  pine  forest. 

Some  time  ago  we  studied  a  dozen  species  of  broad-leaved 
trees;  but  on  our  excursions  to  the  woods  we  also  noticed 
that  the  number  of  such  trees  in  our  neighborhood  is  con- 
siderably larger.  And  what  a  bewildering  number  of  small 
trees,  shrubs,  and  woody  climbers  we  found  associated  with 
the  larger  trees!  There  grew  the  wild  cherries,  the  wild 
plums,  the  June  berry,  gooseberry,  currant,  raspberry,  the 
dogwoods,  the  hazel,  the  snowberry ;  also  the  wild  grape- 
vine, the  false  bittersweet,  and  several  other  climbers. 


256         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

The  pine  forest  seems  to  have  taken  us  to  a  different 
world.  In  one  region  we  find  dense  forests  of  almost  noth- 
ing else  but  Labrador  Pine.  As  far  as  our  eye  can  pene- 
trate we  see  the  maze  of  gray,  lichen-covered  branches  and 
tall,  slim  trunks.  We  are  tempted  to  go  on  and  on,  hoping 
to  come  to  the  end  of  these  silent  and  gloomy  woods.  All 
the  trees  are  of  nearly  the  same  height,  the  same  thickness, 
and  show  the  same  mode  of  branching.  After  we  have 
walked  for  miles,  we  come  upon  a  poplar  thicket  or  upon 
a  growth  of  younger  pines ;  but  they  only  mark  the  path  of 
a  conflagration  which  swept  through  the  primeval  forest. 
Now  we  see  an  opening  in  the  thicket,  and  suddenly  we 
stand  on  the  shore  of  a  sparkling  lake.  The  tall,  waving 
rushes,  the  broad-leaved  lilies,  the  murmur  of  the  rippling 
waters,  the  blue  sky,  with  its  white,  floating  clouds  reflected 
from  the  glassy  expanse  of  strength-  and  health-giving  waters, 
are  the  very  impersonation  of  perfect  rest,  quiet,  and  happi- 
ness. And  all  around  this  sparkling  gem  grow  the  dark, 
melancholy  pines.  Their  trunks  are  hoary  with  age,  a 
bluish  haze  hangs  over  their  tops ;  the  eye  tries  in  vain  to 
reach  the  end  of  the  forest.  Lumbermen  and  hunters  tell 
us  that  there  is  nothing  but  Jack  Pine,  or  Scrub  Pine  as 
they  often  call  them,  for  fifty  miles  around  us. 

Could  we  spend  a  month  in  the  pine  regions  of  our 
Northern  States,  we  should  also  come  upon  large  forests 
of  grand  White  Pines  or  into  airy  groves  of  round-topped 
columns  of  Red  Pines.  Unless  we  were  experienced  woods- 
men, we  should,  no  doubt,  lose  ourselves  in  the  dark  Tam- 
arack and  Cedar  swamps,  where  the  trees  stand  only  a  few 
feet  apart  and  where  fallen  trunks  and  deep  holes  burned 
into  the  ground  by  former  forest  fires  make  travelling 
almost  impossible.  These  swamps,  the  terror  of  woodsmen 
and  hunters,  are  the  home  and  safe  retreat  of  the  moose, 
the  grand  monarch  of  our  forests. 


PINES  AND  PINE  FORESTS  257 

Wherever  the  pines  stood  very  thick,  little  else  but  dead, 
brown  needles  and  a  few  gray  lichens  covered  the  ground. 
In  places  less  densely  shaded  the  ground  was  covered  with 
low  bushes  of  blueberry,  with  a  sprinkling  of  wintergreen, 
and  a  few  other  small  shrubs ;  while  the  dense  shade  in 
Tamarack  and  Cedar  swamps  permitted  no  undergrowth 
except  mosses  and  lichens. 

We  have,  however,  by  no  means  exhausted  the  list  of  dif- 
ferences between  pineries  and  broad-leaved  forests.  Were 
we  to  return  to  these  solitudes  in  autumn,  we  should  look 
in  vain  for  the  golden  yellow  of  the  ash  or  for  the  glowing 
tints  of  oaks,  sumachs,  and  Virginia  creeper;  the  pines 
still  wear  their  sombre  green  of  summer,  but  gray  clouds, 
drizzling  rains,  and  cold  winds  make  the  scenery  still  more 
melancholy  and  gloomy  than  it  was  in  summer. 

When,  however,  fierce  snowstorms  at  last  follow  the 
autumn  gusts,  then  the  pine  forest  is  suggestive  of  shelter, 
home,  and  life.  The  broad-leaved  trees  now  look  bare  and 
lifeless,  but  the  evergreen  needles  of  the  pines  remind  us 
that  life  is  only  sleeping,  and  conjure  up  the  scenes  of  many 
a  merry  Christmas ;  and,  while  the  blizzards  may  sweep  over 
their  tops,  they  are  hardly  felt  on  the  ground. 

The  impression  which  the  pine  forest  makes  upon  us  by  the 
uniformity  of  its  trees,  by  the  absence  of  bright  flowers  and 
luxuriant  underbrush,  and  by  its  sombre  foliage,  is  very  much 
deepened  by  the  almost  solemn  silence  which  prevails  in  it. 
The  winged  musicians,  which  love  the  leafy  brush  and 
its  cool  shade,  find  nothing  to  attract  them  here;  bees 
and  butterflies  find  but  few  flowers,  and  are,  therefore, 
scarce;  and  only  a  few  insects  feed  on  the  green  pine 
needles.  Rabbits,  foxes,  and  wolves  also  find  little  to 
attract  them  in  the  deep  forest,  and  are  not  as  common 
there  as  most  people  think.  The  Virginia  deer,  however, 
is  now  almost  restricted  to  the  pine  regions,  at  least  in  the 


258        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

Northern  States.  It  finds  shelter  in  the  thickets,  but  feeds 
mostly  in  the  openings  around  lakes  and  grassy  ponds.  As 
all  these  wild  animals  have  very  acute  senses  of  smell  and 
hearing,  they  generally  observe  a  man  before  he  sees  them, 
and  disappear  into  the  thickets  or  lie  unobserved  by  him. 

§  57.    Importance  of  Pine  Forests  for  North  America. 
Pines  in  the  economy  of  nature. 

MATERIAL  :  Show  on  a  map  the  areas  which  are  largely  occupied 
by  pine  forests. 

What  we  have  learned  about  the  powers  of  other  forests 
to  retain  moisture  is  just  as  true  of  the  pine  forest,  and 
under  this  term  we  include  all  trees  belonging  to  the  pine 
family.  Pines  are  found  especially  in  the  northern  part 
of  New  England,  around  the  Great  Lakes,  about  the  head 
waters  of  the  Mississippi  in  Minnesota  and  Wisconsin,  in 
the  wooded  parts  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  on  the 
Pacific  slope  in  Oregon,  Washington,  British  Columbia,  and 
Alaska.  Who  will  tell  me  from  the  map  what  streams  have 
their  head  waters  in  pine  regions  ?  An  abundant  precipita- 
tion falls  in  these  regions  and  supplies  the  water  for  count- 
less mills  and  factories ;  it  fills  the  thousands  of  Minnesota, 
Wisconsin,  and  Canada  lakes,  and  carries  ships  on  the  greatest 
system  of  navigable  rivers  and  lakes  in  the  world.  The  ex- 
tensive deforestation,  which  has  been  going  on  ever  since 
the  United  States  began  to  be  settled,  is  partly  the  cause 
of  the  disastrous  floods  which  occur  almost  annually  along 
the  lower  Ohio  and  Mississippi  rivers.  Were  these  regions 
entirely  deforested,  the  spring  floods  would  become  still 
more  disastrous,  while  in  August  and  September  boys  would 
be  able  to  wade  rivers  that  had  been  a  mile  wide  in  April. 
Chittenden,  in  his  book  on  the  Yellowstone  National  Park, 
estimates  on  good  authority  that  the  forests  in  that  region 
retard  the  melting  of  the  snow  at  least  six  weeks,  and  a 


PINES  AND  PINE  FORESTS  259 

similar  effect  is  exerted  by  forests  everywhere,  although  it 
may  not  be  so  considerable.  What  rivers  are  fed  by  the 
streams  from  Yellowstone  Park  ?  Why  are  our  pine  forests 
of  special  importance  as  conservers  of  moisture  ? 

Destruction  of  pineries.  —  Millions  of  acres  of  pine  have 
been  cut  down  by  lumbermen,  but  they  do  not  reseed  the 
land  cut  over.  They  are  interested  only  in  the  pine,  which 
nature  grew  without  any  labor  or  expense  on  their  part,  and 
when  that  pine  has  been  cut,  they  let  the  land  revert  to  the 
respective  states  or  counties  for  taxes,  while  their  axemen  in 
thousands  move  into  virgin  forests.  However,  the  lumber- 
man's axe  would  never  destroy  our  pineries,  for  the  forests 
would  soon  reseed  themselves  and  they  would  nourish  as 
before,  if  no  graver  danger  were  induced  by  it.  The  great, 
the  awful,  destroyers  of  the  pineries  are  the  forest  fires.  These 
fearful  conflagrations,  which  almost  annually  sweep  over 
hundreds  of  square  miles,  are  caused  in  several  ways. 

The  brush  and  dead  trees  which  lumbermen  leave  soon 
become  bone-dry  under  the  summer  sun,  and  furnish  an 
enormous  amount  of  the  most  combustible  material.  '  Fires 
which  are  built  by  lumbermen,  hunters,  campers,  and 
Indians,  and  are  carelessly  left  burning,  may  be  fanned 
by  the  wind  into  widespread  forest  fires.  The  burning  of 
brush  by  settlers,  and  especially  the  sparks  from  loco- 
motives, are  frequently  causes  of  forest  fires.  It  must  not 
be  forgotten  that  in  the  periods  of  drought  which  are  so 
common  a  feature  of  our  summers,  a  smouldering  match 
thrown  on  the  dead  pine  needles  will  almost  certainly  start 
a  fire ;  and  it  is  a  sad  fact,  but  nevertheless  a  fact,  that  the 
fools  who  do  not  think,  and  the  brutes  who  do  not  care,  are 
always  with  us.  The  awful  extent  of  ruined  forests  which 
one  sees  along  the  railroads  in  the  pine  regions  of  Minne- 
sota, Wisconsin,  Michigan,  and  Canada  shows  only  too  pain- 
fully the  fearful  destruction  human  negligence  has  wrought. 


260        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

Can  forest  fires  be  prevented  ?  —  Many  states  have  passed 
laws  to  prevent  forest  and  prairie  fires,  and  are  making  an 
earnest  effort  to  enforce  them  j  but  that  it  is  difficult  to 
punish  offenders  who  commit  crimes  fifty  or  a  hundred 
miles  from  the  nearest  settlement  is  easily  appreciated. 
The  writer  is  forced  to  believe  that,  unless  all  the  states 
concerned  speedily  enter  upon  the  work  of  a  forest  adminis- 
tration as  scientific  and  as  effective  as  that  of  the  German 
States,  Austria,  and  France,  these  terrible  fires  will  con- 
tinue to  burn  as  long  as  there  are  forests  left  to  feed  them. 

The  teacher  should  impress  upon  the  pupils  that  any 
man  or  boy  who  carelessly  leaves  a  camp  fire  burning  en- 
dangers human  life  and  property,  is  not  worthy  to  be  a  free 
citizen  in  a  free  state,  but  should  be  treated  as  a  criminal 
or  as  insane. 

See  John  Muir,  The  American  Forests,  Atlantic  Monthly,  August, 
1897. 

§  58.   Value  and  Use  of  Pine  Lumber. 

MATERIAL  :  Pieces  of  pine  wood  and  hard  wood ;  rosin  ;  a  bottle 
of  turpentine ;  a  resinous  piece  of  pine.  If  practicable,  the  pupils 
should  also  visit  a  sawmill  and  a  lumber  yard. 


OUTLINE  FOR  LESSON 

1.  Nearly  all  the  lumber  used  in  the  building  of  houses, 
barns,  factories,  sidewalks,  etc.,  in  the  prairie  states  came 
from  the  pineries.  The  trees  are  cut  in  winter,  hauled  to 
the  banks  of  streams  on  sleighs,  and  in  spring  they  are 
floated  down  to  the  sawmill,  and  cut  into  lumber,  which  is 
distributed  by  the  railroads  over  the  whole  country.  The 
operation  of  logging,  booming,  and  rafting  should  be  de- 
scribed by  the  teacher,  and  illustrated  by  pictures  procured 
from  magazines  or  other  sources. 


PINES   AND  PINE   FORESTS  261 

2.    Different  kinds  of  pines  are  used  for 

Fuel,  Bridge  piling, 

•Telegraph  poles,  Railroad  ties ; 

and  in  the  manufacture  of 

Furniture,  Pencils, 

Railroad  cars,  Matches. 

The  pines  furnish  us  with  more  lumber  than  all  other  trees 
taken  together;  their  ivood  is  sufficiently  durable  for  many 
purposes,  and  on  account  of  its  softness  and  straight  grain  it 
can  be  easily  worked;  their  tall,  branchless  trunks  are  just  the 
right  material  for  long,  straight  timbers;  for  these  reasons  the 
pines  are  commercially  our  most  valuable  trees. 


IX 

A   FEW   BIRDS   THAT   ARE   RESIDENTS   IN 
OUR   NORTHERN    STATES.     DECEMBER 

All  of  you  children  are  well  acquainted  with  the  House 
Sparrow,,  one  of  the  few  birds  seen  here  all  through  the 
winter.  There  are,  however,  several  birds  which  remain 
with  us  even  in  the  most  severe  winters,  although  many  of 
us  may  not  see  them  frequently.  Among  these  are  several 
owls  and  hawks,  the  Blue  Jay,  a  few  woodpeckers,  and  the 
Chickadee.  Inseparably  connected  with  the  forests  are  the 
woodpeckers.  We  shall  first  learn  a  little  about  the 

§  59.   Hairy  Woodpecker.     Dryobates  villosus. 
MATERIAL  :  Stuffed  bird  or  picture.     Outdoor  observations. 

Every  boy  and  girl  has  seen  a  bird  now  and  then  that 
climbed  up  and  around  trees  by  little  jumps,  and  which  at 
the  same  time  seemed  to  examine  the  tree  very  carefully, 
and  here  and  there  tore  off  little  pieces  of  bark.  The  most 
conspicuous  of  these  birds  is  the  Red-headed  Woodpecker ; 
but  as  the  latter  is  not  a  winter  resident  with  us,  we  shall 
study  the  characteristics  of  the  family  in  the  Hairy  Wood- 
pecker. 

Description.  —  Both  male  and  female  are  black  and  white 
above  and  have  a  white  stripe  on  the  middle  of  the  back ; 
the  male  alone  has  two  red  spots  on  the  back  of  the  head. 
The  under  parts  are  grayish-white.  The  bird  is  from  nine 
to  ten  inches  long,  being  nearly  the  size  of  a  robin. 

Observations.  — If  you  can  get  out  into  the  woods,  look  for  the  tracks  of 
minks,  foxes,  weasels,  and  raccoons. 

262 


RESIDENT   BIRDS   IN   OUR   NORTHERN   STATES      263 

Let  us  see  now  how  the  hairy  woodpecker  is  adapted  to 
the  life  it  leads.  A  woodpecker's  foot  differs  from  that  of 
a  sparrow  by  having  two  toes  pointed  forward  and  two 
backward.  The  toes  are  provided  with  long,  curved  claws, 
by  means  of  which  they  can  hold  very  firmly  to  the  bark  of 
trees.  Our  woodpecker  generally  begins  to  examine  a  tree 


FIG.  52.     HAIRY  WOODPECKER. 


quite  low  on  the  trunk  and  then  travels  upwards.  Were  he 
to  climb  downwards  also,  he  would  have  to  depend  entirely 
on  his  feet,  but  when  going  up  he  uses  the  stout  feathers  of 
his  short  tail  as  a  kind  of  rest  or  brace. 

His  food.  —  He  does  not  examine  the  trees  for  fun,  but 
is  hunting  insects.     His  strong  beak  enables  him  to  break 

Visit  a  collection  of  mounted  North  American  mammals,  if  such  collec- 
tion is  within  your  reach. 


264         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

off  pieces  of  bark,  and  even  to  cut  holes  into  partially 
decayed  wood ;  and  in  this  way  he  finds  many  insects  which 
are  out  of  reach  of  most  birds.  His  tongue  is  awl-shaped, 
and  provided  with  a  barbed,  horny  tip,  which  enables  him 
to  hook  the  worms  in  their  holes. 

Other  common  woodpeckers  are  the  small  Downy  Wood- 
pecker, the  Red-headed  Woodpecker,  and  the  Flicker ;  the 
last  two  are  migratory. 

All  woodpeckers  nest  in  holes  in  trees,  which  they  hollow 
out  themselves.  Sometimes  they  catch  insects  on  the  ground, 
but  their  movements  there  are  awkward.  All  woodpeckers 
are  useful  birds  ;  their  nests  are  always  built  in  dead  trees, 
or  in  the  dead  wood  of  living  trees;  no  boy  should  ever 
molest  them. 

Could  you  tell  a  woodpecker  from  a  pigeon  by  its  mode 
of  flight  ? 

One  of  our  most  common  winter  residents  is 

§  60.   The  Chickadee.     Parus  atricapillus. 

This  little  bird,  considerably  smaller  than  a  house  spar- 
row, is  often  seen  in  small  flocks,  or  in  pairs,  busily  climb- 
ing about  on  the  twigs  and  branches,  carefully  searching 
for  concealed  insects,  pupae,  and  insect  eggs.  They  are  best 
identified  by  their  call  note,  chickadee,  day,  day,  day. 
Above,  they  are  gray ;  below,  almost  white ;  the  crown, 
nape,  chin,  and  throat  are  black;  the  bill  and  feet  lead- 
black.  The  nest,  which  is  placed  in  the  holes  of  stumps, 
consists  of  wool,  fur,  feathers,  and  other  soft  material.  The 
eggs,  which  may  be  looked  for  in  May,  are  white,  thickly 
sprinkled  with  brown.  The  song  is  very  simple,  sounding 
like  chickadee-dee-dee-dee.  Although  they  are  with  us  the 
year  around,  you  are  likely  to  notice  them  most  in  fall 
and  spring,  when  they  are  most  numerous  in  groves  and 
gardens. 


RESIDENT  BIRDS  IN  OUR   NORTHERN   STATES      265 

§61.   The  Blue  Jay.     Cyanocitta  cristata. 

MATERIAL  :  Picture,  mounted  bird,  old  nest.     Outdoor  observations. 

This  is  our  most  noisy  and  most  showy  winter  resident. 
He  is  indeed  a  beautiful  bird ;  but  it  must  be  said  that  his 
heart  is  not  as  good  as  his  dress  is  splendid.  You  cannot 
fail  to  identify  the  blue  jay.  He  is  a  little  larger  than  a 
robin.  The  color  of  both  male  and  female  is  blue  above; 
the  head  is  adorned  with  a  fine  crest ;  the  wings  and  tail 
are  a  bright  blue,  barred  with  black.  The  song  is  a  clear, 


FIG.  53.    BLUE  JAY. 

whistling,  bell  note,  sounding  like  deedle-leet,  deedle- 
leet  ;  but  it  is  quite  loud,  and  does  not  at  all  resemble 
the  feeble  chirps  of  the  warblers.  Its  loud  scream,  jay, 
jay,  jay,  is  heard  much  more  commonly,  and  sounds  very 
cheerful  on  a  crisp,  winter  day.  The  nest  is  built  in  small 
trees  from  ten  to  twenty  feet  above  the  ground ;  it  is  made 
of  small  sticks,  coarse  roots,  and  twigs,  and  lined  with  finer 
material  and  leaves.  The  jays  seem  to  be  most  common  in 
oak  woods,  and  often  build  quite  near  to  houses. 

Food.  —  The  jays  eat  anything  which  a  bird   can  eat: 
seeds,  buds,  acorns,  frogs,  etc.     During  the  breeding  season, 


266        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

they  destroy  some  young  birds  and  eggs ;  but  recent  in- 
vestigations by  the  Department  of  Agriculture  show  that 
this  habit  is  not  nearly  as  common  as  it  was  believed  to  be. 
Of  two  hundred  and  ninety-two  stomachs  of  jays  examined, 
only  two  contained  remains  of  young  birds,  and  three  con- 
tained shells  of  small  birds'  eggs. 

While  it  might  not  be  wise  to  allow  many  jays  to  nest 
near  our  homes,  they  evidently  do  not  deserve  to  be  gener- 
ally persecuted.  They  eat  a  great  many  injurious  insects, 
do  practically  no  harm  to  agriculture,  and  they  enliven  our 
winter  landscapes  more  than  any  other  bird. 

Hawks  and  Owls 

We  have  learned  that  most  mammals  live  on  vegetable 
food;  a  few,  like  bats,  shrews,  and  moles,  live  largely  on 
insects ;  while  others  live  mostly  011  the  flesh  of  mammals 
and  birds.  We  shall  now  study  a  few  birds  which  do  not 
feed  on  seeds  and  insects,  as  most  birds  do,  but  which  live 
largely  on  birds  and  mammals,  which  they  catch  with  their 
sharp  talons.  I  think  we  shall  be  able  to  understand  readily 
that  hawks  and  owls,  the  birds  I  refer  to,  are  well  adapted 
to  catch  and  devour  birds  and  rodents,  but  that  they  could 
not  possibly  pick  up  wheat  and  seeds  as  chickens  do. 

§  62.   The  Red-tailed  Hawk.     Buteo  borealis. 

MATERIAL  :  A  picture,  or  a  mounted  bird  ;  this,  or  some  other 
hawk,  caged  ;  a  freshly  killed  specimen.  Outdoor  observations. 

This  is  one  of  our  large  hawks,  which  every  child  has 
seen  sailing  high  in  the  air.  There  they  soar  so  easily, 
seldom  moving  their  wings,  that  we  cannot  help  thinking 
we  could  do  it  too,  if  we  only  had  some  kind  of  wings. 
But  up  to  this  time,  it  must  be  confessed,  all  wings  and 
flying  machines  invented  by  man  have  proved  very  danger- 
ous contrivances. 


RESIDENT  BIRDS   IN   OUR   NORTHERN   STATES      267 

Description.  —  The  Red-tailed  Hawk  is  not  really  a  winter 
resident  in  Minnesota,  but  it  returns  from  the  South  about  the 
first  of  March.  The  nests  are  built  early  in  April,  in  large 


FIG.  54.    RED-TAILED  HAWK. 


268        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

trees  in  the  woods.  The  material  used  is  coarse  sticks,  twigs, 
leaves,  and  mosses.  The  nest,  on  account  of  its  size,  cannot 
be  concealed,  but  its  elevation  renders  it  a  fairly  safe  place. 
The  color  of  this  bird  is  a  dark  brown  above,  with  many  bars 
and  streaks ;  the  tail  of  the  adult  is  rust-red,  with  a  narroiv 
black  bar  near  its  end.  The  male  is  about  twenty -two,  the 
female  about  twenty-four,  inches  long. 

Food  and  habits. — When  you  see  these  birds  soaring 
leisurely  over  a  wide,  deep  river  bottom,  they  are  either  out 
for  an  airing,  or  their  keen  eyes  are  spying  for  young  rabbits, 
wood  rats,  mice,  and  other  small  rodents.  When  they  espy 
their  prey,  they  pounce  down  upon  it,  fasten  their  long, 
curved  talons  in  it,  and  carry  it  off  to  some  convenient  place, 
where  they  tear  it  to  pieces  with  their  hooked  bill.  They  do 
not  always  distinguish  poultry  from  wild  birds;  and  most 
farmers  shoot  them  wherever  they  can,  although  it  has  been 
shown  that  eighty-five  per  cent  of  their  food  consists  of 
small,  injurious  rodents.  They  should,  therefore,  not  be 
molested,  unless  they  habitually  visit  your  barnyard. 

You  may  now  compare  the  structure  of  the  red-tailed 
hawk  with  that  of  the  duck,  and  show  how  each  bird  is 
adapted  to  the  life  it  leads.  If  illustrative  material  of 
some  other  hawk  is  more  accessible,  the  teacher  may  sub- 
stitute that.  Any  one  of  the  larger  or  of  the  smaller  hawks 
shows  the  structure  that  is  typical  of  birds  of  prey. 

§  63.   The  Great  Horned  Owl.     Bubo  Virginianus. 
MATERIAL  :  Similar  to  that  for  hawks. 

A  small  boy  was  out  camping  in  the  woods  for  the  first 
time  in  his  life.  Towards  evening  a  terrible  thunderstorm 
swept  through  the  woods.  The  thunder  crashed  incessantly, 
the  storm  roared,  the  trees  were  bent,  the  little  boy  looked 
scared  and  asked  his  father  if  the  tent  was  going  to  fall 
down  on  them.  Half  an  hour  later  it  was  dark,  nothing 


RESIDENT  BIRDS   IN   OUR    NORTHERN   STATES       269 

could  be  seen,  but  many  things  the  small  boy  heard,  which 
made  him  feel  ill  at  ease.  Suddenly  some  one  called  out 
right  above  the  tent,  Hoo-hoo-hoo!  Waugh-hoo !  That 
was  too  much.  Some  goblin,  ghost,  or  Indian  was  surely 


FIG.  55.    GREAT  HORNED  OWL. 

looking  for  him  ;  his  tears  began  to  flow  and,  with  the  most 
plaintive  voice,  he  cried,  "  I  want  mamma ! " 

There  were  no  Indians  within  a  hundred  miles  of  the  tent, 
but  the  Great  Horned  Owl  was  sitting  in  a  tree  above  it, 
and  his  hooting  had  broken  down  the  little  fellow,  who  had 


270        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

talked  fishing,  hunting,  and  camping  for  the  last  two  weeks 
and  had  bragged  not  a  little  to  his  less  fortunate  play- 
mates. 

Description.  —  This  owl  reaches  a  length  of  from  twenty 
to  twenty-four  inches,  and  its  loose,  fluffy  feathers  make  it 
look  bigger  than  it  really  is.  Out  of  this  mass  of  feathers 
project  a  vicious-looking  crooked  bill,  and  formidable  curved 
claws.  Two  large  tufts  of  feathers  stand  erect  on  the  cat- 
like head,  and  the  large  yellow  eyes  seem  to  be  intent  upon 
staring  you  out  of  countenance.  The  plumage  is  irregularly 
mottled  and  barred,  showing  shades  of  black,  tawny,  buff, 
and  whitish ;  the  feet  and  legs  are  also  feathered. 

This  owl  is  a  resident  of  our  Northern  States ;  it  ranges 
from  the  Atlantic  coast  to  the  Mississippi  valley  and  south 
to  Central  America.  The  nest  is  usually  built  on  high  trees 
in  a  dense  forest.  It  is  a  rude  structure  built  of  sticks  and 
twigs,  and  lined  with  leaves,  moss,  and  grasses.  The  eggs, 
from  three  to  four  in  number,  are  yellowish-white. 

That  this  owl  is  a  bird  of  prey,  we  perceive  at  once  from 
the  shape  of  its  bill  and  claws.  There  are  but  few  birds 
which  it  will  not  attack,  and  such  small  mammals  as  rabbits, 
rats,  and  mice  are  its  daily  fare.  Should  it  chance  upon 
the  chicken  trees  of  some  careless  farmer,  it  is  sure  to  cause 
sad  havoc,  perhaps  killing  half  a  dozen  chickens  in  one  night. 
Where  poultry  is  protected,  it  is  undoubtedly  a  useful  bird, 
like  nearly  all  our  birds  of  prey,  because  it  helps  to  keep  in 
check  the  army  of  small  rodents  which  are  nearly  all  more 
or  less  injurious  to  man. 

Did  you  ever  stop  to  think  why  the  eyes  of  owls  are  so 
large  ?  If  their  eyes  were  like  ours,  they  could  not  find  any 
mice  after  sunset.  Their  hearing  also  is  very  acute,  and 
their  flight,  on  account  of  their  soft  feathers,  is  noiseless. 
Tlie  three  points  just  mentioned  are  of  great  importance  to 
owls,  because  the  mammals  on  which  they  feed  are  mostly  noc- 


/qy     OF  THB 

f  UNIVERSITY  1 

RESIDENT  BIRDS   IN  OUR  NORTHERN  STATES      271 

turned,  move  about  almost  without  noise,  and  having  very  sharp 
ears  they  would  hide  at  the  slightest  flapping  of  wings. 

It  is  very  much  to  be  regretted  that  the  custom  of  indis- 
criminately shooting  all  hawks  and  owls,  and  nailing  their 
dead  bodies  to  barn  doors,  does  still  prevail  in  this  country. 
All  the  smaller  hawks  and  owls  are  beneficial  birds,  feeding 
almost  entirely  on  insects  and  mice  ;  some  of  the  larger 
ones  are  harmless ;  only  a  few,  such  as  the  Goshawk, 
Cooper's  Hawk,  and  the  Sharp-shinned  Hawk,  may  be  truly 
classed  among  the  harmful  birds. 

REFERENCES  ON  BIRDS 

1.  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  54,  Some  Common  Birds. 

2.  Yearbook,  Department  of  Agriculture,  1894,  Hawks  and  Owls  as 

Related  to  the  Farmer.   Every  teacher  should  secure  both  articles 
and  refer  the  older  pupils,  especially  the  boys,  to  them. 

3.  C.   C.  Abbott.    Birdland  Echoes.    J.  B.  Lippincott  Co.    A  very 

interesting  book. 

§  64.   Review  of  the  Birds. 

MATERIAL  :  A  boiled  egg ;  some  large  tail  and  wing  feathers ;  the 
down  and  breast  feathers  of  a  duck  or  goose ;  pictures  or  mounted 
birds  representing  the  groups  mentioned. 

The  covering  of  all  birds  consists  of  feathers,  which  grow 
from  the  skin  and  are  in  no  way  connected  with  the  bones. 
Birds  do  not  keep  the  same  covering  of  feathers  during  their 
whole  life.  Once  or  twice  a  year  the  old  feathers  are  shed 
and  new  ones  grow  rapidly.  This  process  is  called  moulting. 
During  this  time  birds  do  not  sing,  and  their  usual  activity 
is  much  reduced.  The  males  of  most  birds  possess  a  much 
brighter  plumage  than  the  females,  and  in  general  the  plu- 
mage of  birds  is  brighter  in  spring  than  it  is  in  fall  and  winter. 
Let  the  children  mention  a  few  birds  to  which  this  state- 
ment is  specially  applicable. 

You  must  have  been  struck  by  the  great  resemblance  in 
shape  and  general  appearance  that  one  bird  bears  to  the 


272        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

other.  This  resemblance  is  due  to  the  fact  that  all  birds 
have  their  fore  limbs  changed  into  wings,  are  covered  with 
feathers,  and  have  a  horny  bill.  Do  you  know  of  any  birds 
that  cannot  fly  ? 

All  birds  lay  eggs,  and  nearly  all  in  nests  more  or  less  skil- 
fully built  by  themselves ;  only  a  few  lay  their  eggs  in  the 
nests  of  other  birds.  The  eggs  consist  of  a  hard,  calcareous 
shell,  the  white,  and  the  yolk,  which  is  of  a  yellow  or  reddish 
color.  Every  egg  has  a  small  space  filled  with  air. 

The  warmth  of  the  brooding  bird  causes  the  young  to 
develop  in  the  eggs.  If  during  the  period  of  incubation  the 
eggs  are  thoroughly  chilled,  the  young  birds  in  them  will 
die.  The  time  necessary  to  hatch  the  eggs  varies  much 
with  the  size  of  the  birds.  The  young  of  most  birds  are 
blind,  naked,  and  helpless  when  hatched,  and  depend  entirely 
on  their  parents  for  food ;  but  the  young  of  chickens,  ducks, 
and  geese  are  covered  with  a  soft  down,  can  see  at  once,  and 
after  a  day  or  two  they  move  about  with  the  mother  and 
find  their  own  food. 

Most  birds  breeding  in  cold  or  in  temperate  regions  mi- 
grate south  on  the  approach  of  winter  and  return  in  spring ; 
these  are  Migratory  Birds.  A  bird  that  remains  in  the  same 
region  winter  and  summer  is  called  a  Resident  Bird. 

The  most  characteristic  marks  for  the  classification  of 
birds  are  found  in  the  structure  of  the  bill,  the  legs,  and 
feet. 

A  very  large  group  of  birds  whose  feet  are  adapted  to 
perching  on  trees,  and  most  of  which  have  some  power  of 
song,  are  frequently  called  Song  Birds. 

A  much  better  marked  group  is  formed  by  ducks,  geese, 
swans,  and  similar  birds.  Their  body  is  somewhat  boat- 
shaped  ;  their  legs  are  short  and  are  set  well  back ;  the  toes 
are  webbed  and  form  powerful  paddles.  They  can  use  their 
bill  as  a  strainer  to  separate  small  aquatic  animals  from  the 


RESIDENT   BIRDS   IN  OUR  NORTHERN   STATES      273 

water.  Their  plumage  is  always  kept  well  oiled,  so  that  it 
is  not  wetted,  although  they  swim  and  dive  for  hours. 
These  birds  are  called  Swimmers. 

Another  well-marked  order  is  formed  by  the  Waders,  or 
Marsh  Birds.  Their  legs  are  very  long  and  enable  them  to 
wade  about  in  shallow  water.  Their  neck  and  bill  are  also 
long  and  enable  them  to  procure  fish  and  other  aquatic  ani- 
mals. 

You  may  now  try  to  find  some  of  the  characteristics  of 
Woodpeckers,  Chickens,  and  Birds  of  Prey.  How  do  owls 
differ  from  hawks  ? 


ABOUT   A   FEW   COMMON   MAMMALS. 
JANUARY 

§  65.    The  Common  Skunk. 

MATERIAL  :  Mounted  specimen  ;  skin,  picture,  skull. 

The  range  of  the  common  skunk  extends  from  Hudson's 
Bay  to  Mexico.  Its  color  is  quite  variable,  but  is  usually 
black  with  a  white  patch  on  the  nape,  white  stripes  on  the 
back,  and  a  white  tip  on  the  tail.  The  animal  generally 
moves  about  slowly,  bears  its  bushy  tail  erect,  and  does  not 
try  hard  to  run  away  from  man  unless  very  near  to  a  place 
of  concealment.  Compared  with  the  slim,  almost  snake-like 
body  of  minks  and  weasels,  it  reminds  one  of  a  small,  fat 
dog.  Its  whole  length  is  about  twenty-eight  inches;  the 
tail  measures  nine  inches.  It  is  best  recognized  by  its 
horrible,  mephitic  odor. 

Habits  and  food.  —  The  feet  of  skunks  are  provided  with 
strong  claws  for  digging.  Their  burrow  extends  in  a  straight 
line  for  about  seven  feet  and  about  two  feet  below  the  sur- 
face. Then  it  ends  in  a  large  excavation.  This  is  the  hid- 
ing-place of  a  skunk  family,  and  here  they  remain  inactive 
during  the  winter.  They  do  not  lay  in  a  store  of  provisions, 
but  are  very  fat  in  the  fall,  and  to  fast  from  December  to 
February  or  March  seems  an  easy  task  for  them.  Like  the 

Observations.  —  Visit  a  zoological  garden,  if  you  live  in  a  large  city, 
and  learn  to  know  the  Virginia  deer,  the  elk,  the  moose,  the  black  bear, 
the  grizzly  bear,  the  wolf,  the  coyote,  the  wild  cat,  the  lynx,  the  puma,  and 
the  buffalo,  or  bison. 

274 


ABOUT  A  FEW   COMMON  MAMMALS  275 

raccoon  and  other  animals,  they  do  not  hibernate  in   the 
Southern  States. 

The  food  of  skunks  consists  of  young  birds,  eggs,  frogs, 
mice,  insects,  and  any  small  creatures  they  can  catch  on  the 
ground.  If  they  live  near  a  farm,  they  frequently  draw 
upon  the  farmer's  poultry  for  a  supply  of  meat  and  eggs ; 
and  being  rather  slow  and  stupid  animals,  they  are  often 
caught  by  dogs,  shot  by  the  farmer's  boy,  or  even  clubbed 
to  death.  The  only  effective  means  of  defence  they  have  is 
their  terrible  squirt-gun.  The  foul  fluid  is  secreted  and 
emitted  by  two  special  glands  situated  near  the  root  of  the 
tail ;  it  is  not  the  urine  as  some  people  think.  The  skunks 
never  soil  themselves  with  this  fluid ;  they  are  very  cleanly, 
and  often  no  smell  is  perceptible  near  the  mouth  of  a  bur- 
row in  which  a  whole  family  is  living.  Their  black  and 
white  colors  and  their  bushy  tail  are  probably  a  warning  to 
the  larger  beasts  of  prey,  and  thus  protect  the  animal  by 
making  it  conspicuous. 

§  66.    The  Common  Mink.     Putorius  vison. 

MATERIAL:  A  mounted  mink  ;  skin  or  picture. 

Description.  —  The  color  of  this  well-known  farmer's  pest 
is  a  uniform  chestnut-brown,  not  appreciably  lighter  below ; 
but  the  tail  is  darker,  the  end  of  the  chin  is  white,  and  there 
is  also  a  white  spot  between  the  fore  legs.  The  general 
appearance  of  the  mink  is  that  of  a  long,  slim  cat,  with 
a  somewhat  bushy  tail  which  is  from  six  to  eight  inches 
long.  The  head  and  snout  are  more  elongated  than  those 
of  a  cat,  and  the  animal  shows  its  amphibious  nature  by 
having  all  the  toes  webbed ;  it  measures  about  twenty -eight 
inches  from  the  nose  to  the  end  of  the  tail  bone. 

Habits  and  food.  —  The  mink,  like  other  small  mammals, 
has  found  it  advantageous  to  live  near  the  abodes  of  man. 

All  these  animals  can  be  seen  in  Lincoln  Park,  Chicago. 


276        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

A  farmer  who  lives  near  a  small  stream  and  a  few  acres  of 
timber  or  brush  is  likely  to  have  a  large  number  of  chickens 
killed  by  this  marauder,  which  will  make  its  home  in  the 
crevices  of  rocks  or  under  stone  and  wood  piles,  from  where 
it  makes  regular  excursions  to  its  hunting-ground,  the  farm- 
yard and  outbuildings.  Minks  are,  however,  not  as  bad  as 
weasels,  for  the  latter  often  kill  ten  times  as  many  chickens 
as  they  can  eat.  In  the  woods  minks  live  on  eggs,  birds, 
rabbits,  mice,  and  other  small  animals;  and  as  they  are 
good  swimmers,  they  also  catch  fish. 

The  mink  is  one  of  our  fur-bearing  animals ;  it  is  found 
over  the  whole  of  North  America,  and  thousands  of  skins 
are  annually  used  in  this  country  and  in  Europe. 

It  belongs  to  the  Weasel  family ;  its  near  relatives,  the 
Pine  Marten,  the  Weasels,  and  the  European  Ermine,  all 
have  long,  slim  bodies  and  emit  an  unpleasant  odor. 

§  67.   The  Red  Fox. 

MATERIAL  :  Mounted  specimen  ;  skin,  picture,  skull. 

This  fox  inhabits  the  whole  of  North  America  as  far 
south  as  Texas.  The  Cross  Fox  and  the  Black  Fox  are 
considered  as  varieties  of  the  Red  Fox. 

Every  boy  who  has  ever  seen  a  fox  will  tell  you  that  he 
looks  like  a  rather  small  dog  with  a  bushy  tail.  The  gen- 
eral color  of  this  fox  is  a  reddish-gray,  the  feet  and  ears  are 
black,  the  tail  is  tipped  with  white,  and  there  is  a  narrow 
line  of  dull  white  on  the  belly.  The  whole  length  of  the 
animal  is  about  forty-five  inches;  the  tail  alone  measures 
about  fifteen  inches. 

Habits  and  food.  —  This  species,  like  all  foxes,  digs  holes 
in  which  its  young  are  reared  and  to  which  they  occasion- 
ally retreat  when  hard  pressed  by  pursuing  men  or  dogs. 

Observations.  — It  you  cannot  see  the  animals  themselves,  learn  to  dis- 
tinguish them  on  pictures,  or  examine  mounted  specimens. 


ABOUT  A  FEW  COMMON   MAMMALS  277 

It  is  probable  that  even  foxes  are  at  least  as  numerous  now 
as  they  were  before  the  country  was  settled. 

They  live  on  wild  and  tame  birds,  rabbits,  muskrats, 
squirrels,  mice,  and  other  small  animals.  When  they  hunt 
birds,  they  either  lie  in  wait  for  them  or  they  trail  them 
like  a  pointer  dog  and  then  suddenly  spring  upon  them. 

The  different  kinds  of  foxes  are  among  the  most  valu- 
able of  fur-bearing  animals.  Their  cunning  is  proverbial, 
and  it  is  difficult  to  shoot  or  to  trap  them.  Newhouse, 
in  his  "Trappers'  Guide,"  recommends  to  smear  the  trap 
and  chain  with  blood  or  to  give  both  a  coating  of  beeswax. 

§  68.   The  Raccoon. 

MATERIAL  :  Like  that  in  preceding  lessons. 

OUTLINE  FOR  LESSON 

Description.  —  About  as  large  as  a  medium-sized  dog,  but 
legs  shorter;  weight  about  twenty  pounds;  body  grayish 
above  mixed  with  black ;  ears  and  lower  parts  whitish ;  a 
black  spot  on  the  cheeks;  tail  with  alternating  black  and  gray 
rings  from  ten  to  twelve  in  number. 

Habits  and  food.  —  Their  nests  and  winter  retreats  are  in 
hollow  trees ;  they  are  good  climbers.  They  feed  on  clams, 
birds,  eggs,  turtles,  frogs,  and  are  very  fond  of  corn  in  the 
milk.  Their  flesh  is  eatable  and  they  make  very  interesting 
pets.  In  the  Northern  States  they  hibernate  for  several 
months. 


XI 
AMERICAN   BIG   GAME.    FEBRUARY 

We  have  observed  quite  a  number  of  birds  and  mammals, 
and  among  them  a  few  that  are  hunted  or  trapped  for  sport 
or  profit.  Who  will  name  a  few  of  these  animals  ?  We 
have  frequently  had  occasion  to  note  that  most  birds  and 
smaller  mammals  prefer  a  settled  and  partially  cleared 
country  to  the  wild  primeval  forests.  If  the  smaller  mam- 
mals were  taken  only  in  the  season  when  their  fur  or  their 
meat  is  good,  we  should  always  have  plenty  of  them  around 
us;  but  they  must  be  kept  in  check,  for  in  large  numbers 
many  of  them  would  become  a  great  pest  to  the  agriculturist. 
When,  however,  we  find  them  in  places  where  they  do  no 
appreciable  harm,  no  boy  will  kill  them  for  the  mere  love 
of  destruction. 

Now  I  will  tell  you  about  a  few  large  animals  whose  home 
has  always  been  in  the  large  forests  and  who  have  disap- 
peared from  all  the  thickly  settled  regions  of  our  country. 
Probably  you  have  all  heard  about  the  graceful  Virginia 
Deer,  the  stately  Elk,  the  majestic  Moose,  and  also  about 
the  Wolf  and  the  Black  Bear. 

§  69.    The  Virginia  Deer,  or  Red  Deer.     Cervus  Vlrginianus. 

MATERIAL  :  Picture  ;  mounted  heads  ;  antlers  ;  visit  to  museum  or 
zoological  garden. 

This  beautiful  animal  was  formerly  very  common  from 
Maine  and  southern  Canada  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and 

Note.  —  Give  the  pupils  some  good  reading  along  the  line  of  Nature 
Study.  See  Appendix. 

278 


AMERICAN  BIG   GAME  279 

south  into  Texas  and  Mexico.  It  was  not  only  found  in  the 
large  forests,  but  was  also  found  in  the  seams  of  timber 
which  border  the  streams  and  surround  the  lakes  in  the 
prairie  states.  It  is  still  not  rare  in  the  sparsely  settled  re- 
gions of  the  Alleghanies,  the  New  England  States,  and  in 
the  woods  of  northern  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota. 
Of  all  our  large  game  it  holds  out  longest  against  the  ad- 
vance of  civilization,  and  if  it  is  properly  protected  and  city 
sportsmen  learn  to  control  their  hunting  passion  and  shoot 
only  one  or  two  in  a  season  instead  of  killing  them  by  the 
wagonload,  there  will  be  plenty  of  deer  for  a  long  time  to 
come  ;  if  not,  then  the  Bed  Deer  will  soon  follow  the 
Moose  and  the  Elk  into  almost  inaccessible  regions,  and 
finally  by  the  brutality  and  stupidity  of  enlightened  Ameri- 
can citizens,  the  sad  fate  of  the  Bison  will  overtake  it.  But 
if  the  boys  and  young  men  now  in  our  schools  and  colleges 
will  develop  as  much  common  sense  as  the  writer  sincerely 
hopes  and  believes  they  will  do,  then  this  can  never  happen. 
Monarcliial  Europe  has  preserved  much  of  her  big  game  by 
severe  and  often  cruel  laws;  republican  America  ought  to  be 
able  to  do  more  by  the  intelligence  of  her  citizens. 

Description.  —  A  full-grown  Virginia  buck  is  about  as 
large  as  a  yearling  calf,  but  you  must  not  forget  that  its 
head  is  thinner  and  its  muzzle  much  more  pointed ;  that  its 
legs  are  longer  and  only  about  as  thick  as  those  of  a  large 
sheep.  The  fawns  are  at  first  bright  reddish-brown  and 
spotted  with  longitudinal  rows  of  white,  but  after  a  few 
months  the  spots  disappear.  Then  the  general  color  of 
bucks  and  does  is  chestnut-red  in  summer,  changing  to 
grayish  in  winter.  The  chin,  throat,  abdomen,  and  under 
side  of  the  tail  are  white.  Their  color  blends  so  well  with 
the  brown  of  dead  ferns,  pine  needles,  and  other  foliage  that 
it  is  almost  impossible  to  discover  them  at  the  distance  of  a 
hundred  yards,  unless  they  move  or  are  in  the  open.  Their 


280        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

ability  to  hide  in  brush  and  grass  is  also  remarkable.  The 
writer  and  a  friend  once  nearly  failed  to  discover  a  flock  of 
eight  or  nine  tame  deer  that  were  lying  in  a  field  of  very 
thin  timothy  which  was  only  about  a  foot  high  and  where 
there  was  no  brush  of  any  kind. 


FIG.  56.    VIRGINIA  DEER. 

The  bucks  alone  are  provided  with  antlers.  The  first 
pair  are  mere  spikes,  but  they  increase  in  size  and  in  the 
number  of  branches  until  the  buck  is  about  five  years  old, 
when  each  antler  has  about  four  prongs.  In  January  or 
February,  according  to  latitude  and  season,  the  buck  sheds 
his  antlers,  and  after  three  or  four  weeks  the  new  antlers 
begin  to  grow.  They  are  covered  with  skin  and  a  velvety 


AMERICAN  BIG   GAME  281 

growth  of  hair;  are  very  soft  and  will  bleed  freely  if 
scratched  or  otherwise  injured.  At  this  time  the  buck  is 
not  combative ;  when  he  must  fight  he  uses  his  fore  feet  only, 
and  it  is  almost  amusing  to  see  how  carefully  he  brushes 
away  blood-sucking  flies  and  mosquitoes  from  his  tender 
antlers. 

Habits  and  food.  —  The  food  of  this  deer  varies  much 
with  the  season.  In  spring  and  summer  they  feed  on 
tender  grasses  and  herbs  around  lakes  and  ponds,  and  also 
eat  cultivated  plants  in  fields  and  gardens.  In  the  winter 
time  they  subsist  on  the  buds  and  twigs  of  a  great  many 
shrubs  and  trees.  On  warm  days  they  feed  mostly  during 
the  cool  hours  of  morning  and  evening,  while  during  the 
remainder  of  the  day  they  lie  concealed  in  thickets  or  in 
the  tall  grass  of  swamps.  When  surprised  by  man,  they 
rush  into  a  thicket,  from  which  the  old  bucks  occasionally 
watch  their  enemy  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  stamping  with 
their  feet,  and  uttering  a  sound  which  is  half-way  between 
a  snort  and  a  whistle.  The  antlers  of  the  bucks  have 
attained  their  full  growth  and  have  become  hard  in  August 
or  September;  the  skin  on  them  has  dried  up,  and  is 
brushed  off  by  rubbing  the  antlers  against  trees  and  bushes. 
In  November  the  rutting  season  begins,  and  the  bucks  move 
about  constantly  in  search  of  the  does,  and  fight  fierce  battles 
with  one  another.  Sometimes  the  horns  of  two  stags  become 
locked,  and  they  starve  to  death,  or  fall  a  prey  to  wolves. 
Audubon  relates  a  case  where  the  skulls  of  three  deer  were 
found  with  their  antlers  firmly  locked. 

The  natural  enemies  of  deer  are  wolves,  the  Canada  lynx, 
the  wildcat,  and  bears.  The  latter  probably  seldom  catch  a 
healthy  deer ;  the  lynx  lies  in  wait  for  them  on  the  ground 
or  on  trees,  and  springs  upon  them  in  cat-fashion ;  and  the 
wildcat  kills,  no  doubt,  many  a  fawn.  Wolves  frequently 
hunt  a  deer  in  packs.  In  the  summer  time  the  hunted  deer 


282        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

takes  to  the  water,  if  possible,  and  will  readily  swim  any 
large  river  or  a  lake  a  mile  wide  and  escape ;  but  hunters 
say  that,  in  the  winter  time,  wolves  nearly  always  run  down 
the  deer  which  they  start  to  chase. 

Economical  value.  —  The  meat  of  the  red  deer  is  the  most 
palatable  of  all  kinds  of  venison.  The  pioneer  settler,  who 
lives  on  venison  and  little  else  for  years,  the  lumberman, 
the  hunter,  the  Indian,  and  the  guests  of  our  luxurious 
metropolitan  hotels,  all  prize  it.  Its  skin  furnishes  valu- 
able robes  and  leather  for  Indians  and  whites,  its  antlers 
furnish  the  handles  for  much  fine  cutlery,  and  the  fine 
mounted  heads  adorn  the  home  of  many  a  sportsman.  Deer 
do  no  injury  unless  they  make  frequent  inroads  into  a 
settler's  field  and  garden. 

Hunting  the  deer.  —  The  true  sportsman  gives  his  game  a 
fair  chance  to  escape.  His  endurance,  skill,  and  knowledge 
of  woodcraft  are  pitted  against  the  fleetness  and  endurance 
of  his  game.  He  finds  his  deer  without  the  assistance  of 
dogs,  which  he  can  do  best  by  tracking  them  after  a  light 
fall  of  snow.  He  prefers  bucks  to  does,  never  shoots  at  a 
fawn,  never  Mils  more  game  than  he  can  make  use  of,  and 
obeys  the  game  laws  of  the  state  in  which  he  hunts.  Hunting 
with  hounds  is  generally  prohibited  because  they  drive  the 
deer  into  lakes  and  rivers,  where  they  are  simply  butchered 
by  men  on  land  or  in  boats,  and  where  they  have  been  killed 
with  clubs.  The  so-called  fire-hunting  is  not  sportsmanlike, 
because  it  does  not  give  the  deer  a  fair  chance.  It  is  likely 
to  cause  more  game  to  be  killed  than  the  hunter  can  use. 
He  cannot  see  whether  he  shoots  at  a  buck,  a  doe,  or  a 
fawn;  and  in  settled  regions  may  shoot  domestic  animals 
or  even  people.  The  light  of  his  lantern  in  the  boat  is 
reflected  only  from  the  eyes  of  the  creature,  which  curi- 
ously gazes  at  the  uncommon  sight  from  the  near  shore. 
A  true  hunter  is  also  merciful.  He  does  not  shoot  unless 


AMERICAN  BIG   GAME 


283 


he  has  a  fair  chance  to  kill,  and  he  tries  his  best  to  capture 
all  the  animals  he  wounds ;  for  a  wounded  deer  is  almost 
sure  to  wander  about  for  days  in  agony  until  the  wolves 
end  its  misery. 


§  70.    The  Elk,  or  Wapiti,  and  the  Moose. 

sis  and  Alee  alces,  var.  Americanus. 


Cervus  Canaden- 


FIG.  57.    ELK,  OR  WAPITI. 

MATERIAL  :  As  under  Virginia  deer.  It  would  be  beyond  the  plan 
and  purpose  of  this  book  to  give  a  detailed  description  of  the  life  and 
habits  of  the  elk,  moose,  wolf,  and  black  bear.  For  such  treatises 
teacher  and  pupils  are  referred  to  the  many  books  on  hunting  big 
game  ;  to  Audubon  and  Bachman,  Quadrupeds  of  North  America,  and 
to  various  sporting  magazines,  especially  to  Forest  and  Stream,  of 


284        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

New  York.    Read  the  articles  on  the  Yellowstone  Park  in  Forest  and 
Stream,  1894. 

The  object  of  this  chapter  on  "  Big  Game  "  is  to  interest  the 
pupils  in  the  grand  and  beautiful,  as  expressed  in  our  large, 
wild  mammals,  and  to  cause  them  to  take  an  active  interest  in 
their  intelligent  preservation,  wherever  conditions  permit  it. 
Compare  the  chapter  on  "Domesticated  Animals." 

Both  the  wapiti  and  the  moose  are  deer.  The  wapiti, 
often  called  elk,  stands  about  as  high  as  a  horse.  The 
head  of  the  male,  called  the  bull  by  hunters,  is  adorned  with 
a  pair  of  formidable  antlers,  each  generally  having  six 
prongs.  The  prongs  that  diverge  most  have  points  about 
three  and  one-half  feet  apart,  and  a  pair  of  the  horns  weigh 
from  thirty  to  forty  pounds.  The  color  of  this  grand  and 
beautiful  deer  is  a  chestnut-red  in  summer  and  grayish  in 
winter.  Formerly  the  wapiti  was  found  from  Virginia  to 
the  Rockies,  but  it  is  now  very  rare  on  this  side  of  the 
B-ocky  Mountains.  It  is  estimated  that  about  thirty  thou- 
sand of  these  noble  beasts  roam  in  the  Yellowstone  Park, 
where  no  rifleman  may  molest  them,  but  where  a  lover  of 
nature  may  hunt  them  with  a  kodak. 

The  moose,  which  is  the  largest  of  all  our  deer,  fully 
reaches  the  height  of  a  horse,  but  the  maximum  weight  of  a 
very  large  bull  is  not  more  than  fifteen  hundred  pounds. 
The  bull  carries  a  pair  of  flattened  antlers  of  enormous  size, 
weighing  from  fifty  to  seventy  pounds.  The  head  of  the 
moose  resembles  that  of  a  horse,  but  the  upper  lip  is  con- 
siderably longer  than  the  lower  and  enables  the  moose  to 
browse  on  twigs  and  peel  off  the  bark  of  trees.  Its  ears  are 
about  as  large  as  those  of  a  domestic  cow  or  mule.  More 
than  one  inexperienced  hunter  has  not  fired  at  a  moose  cow, 
because  he  was  under  the  impression  that  some  farmer's 
mule  had  strayed  rather  far  into  the  woods,  and  later  the 
same  inexperienced  hunter  has  killed  the  first  mule  he  came 


AMERICAN  BIG   GAME 


285 


across.  Unless  we  think  of  the  moose  in  connection  with 
its  wild  and  weird  woods,  we  can  hardly  consider  it  beauti- 
ful. Its  color  is  tawny  above  and  somewhat  yellowish  be- 
low. It  is  still  found  in  the  wild  woods  of  northern  Maine 
and  Minnesota,  in  Canada,  the  Eocky  Mountains,  and  on  the 
Pacific  coast  from  Oregon  to  Alaska. 


FIG.  58.    MOOSE. 

§  71.   Wolf  and  Bear. 

MATERIAL  :  Similar  to  that  for  deer  ;  children  might  see  some  of 
these  large  animals  in  the  circus. 

Wherever  red  deer,  wapiti,  and  moose  are  found,  you 
may  also  come  upon  the  wolf  (Canis  lupus)  and  upon  the 
black  bear  (Ursus  americanus).  Children  frequently  imagine 
the  beasts  of  prey  to  be  very  much  larger  than  they  really 


286         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

are.  Our  common  wolf  is  as  big  as  a  large  dog.  Its  color 
is  chiefly  gray,  but  in  Florida  wolves  are  black,  in  Texas 
red,  on  the  prairies,  dusky.  Wolves  eat  any  animal  they  can 
catch  and  kill ;  they  rarely  attack  man  unless  they  are  driven 
to  it  by  hunger.  They  are  exceedingly  wary  and  are  still 
not  rare  in  many  well-settled  regions. 

The  black  bear  stands  about  three  feet  high,  attains  a 
length  of  about  six  feet,  and  weighs  from  two  hundred  to 
four  hundred  pounds.  Bears  live  on  the  animals  they  can 
catch,  but  are  also  fond  of  acorns,  wild  cherries,  and  all 
kinds  of  berries ;  they  also  eat  insects  and  rob  the  nests  of 
wild  bees'  honey.  A  black  bear  very  seldom  attacks  a  man, 
unless  a  hunter  wounds  him,  or  a  she-bear  believes  her  cubs 
to  be  in  danger. 

§  72.   Review  of  the  Mammals. 

The  young  of  mammals  are  born  alive ;  they  are  not 
hatched  from  eggs.  Their  first  food  is  the  milk  of  their 
mother.  This  way  of  feeding  young  animals  is  a  decided 
improvement  upon  the  way  in  which  birds  feed  their  young. 
The  mother  can  generally  procure  her  food  without  much 
difnculty ;  and  her  milk  furnishes  food  and  drink  at  all 
times  available  for  the  young  animal.  The  young  of  small 
mammals  are  always  well  concealed;  those  of  the  larger 
herbivores,  like  deer,  cattle,  and  sheep,  can  run  about  a  few 
hours  after  birth,  and  are  protected  and  defended  by  their 
mothers ;  while  the  young  of  the  large  flesh-eaters  have, 
probably,  no  enemies,  except  man.  The  eggs  of  birds  are 
exposed  to  many  dangers  for  a  long  period;  but  these 
dangers  are  avoided  in  the  world  of  mammals.  All  animals 
whose  young  are  born  alive  and  are  fed  on  the  milk  of 
the  mother  are  mammals.  Seals,  dolphins,  and  whales  are 
mammals,  although  the  last  two  look  very  much  like  fishes. 

Most  mammals  have  a  covering  of  hair,  which  is  shed 


AMERICAN  BIG   GAME  287 

regularly,  and  renewed  in  the  fall  and  spring.  The  summer 
coats  are  much  thinner  than  the  winter  fur,  and  only  the 
latter  has  any  value  as  peltry. 

The  different  families  of  mammals  bear  no  such  strong 
resemblance  to  each  other  as  we  found  among  the  different 
families  of  birds.  Very  conspicuous  differences  are  ex- 
hibited in  the  shape  of  the  limbs  and  in  the  dentition. 

The  feet  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  hogs,  and  deer  end  in 
hoofs.  These  are  therefore  called  Ungulates,  or  Hoofed  Ani- 
mals. Among  them  we  easily  distinguish  the  omnivorous 
hogs  from  the  strictly  herbivorous  deer,  cattle,  sheep,  and 
the  one-hoofed  horses.  Both  deer  and  cattle  are  ruminants, 
but  the  latter  are  easily  distinguished  from  the  former  by 
their  permanent  horns. 

Of  those  mammals  whose  feet  are  provided  with  claws, 
dogs,  wolves,  foxes,  and  the  different  members  of  the  cat 
family  have  long,  pointed  eyeteeth,  or  canines,  and  sharp, 
pointed  molars.  These  molars  are  well  fitted  to  shear  meat 
and  crush  bones,  but  they  could  not  grind  up  hard  seeds 
and  herbs.  Animals  with  such  dentition  live  on  the  flesh 
of  warm-blooded  animals,  e.g.  on  birds  and  mammals.  They 
are  not  cruel  or  bloodthirsty  in  the  real  sense  of  the  word ; 
for  they  have  to  kill  their  prey,  or  starve  themselves. 
These  animals  we  call  Flesh-eaters,  or  Carnivores;  and  the 
large  ones  are  often  called  Beasts  of  Prey.  The  flesh-eaters 
prevent  small  and  large  rodents  and  all  herbivores  from 
unduly  multiplying,  and  compel  them  to  exercise  their 
limbs  and  their  wits.  Whenever  animals  have  been  found 
that  had  no  enemies,  they  were  always  very  dull  brutes, 
and  were  soon  exterminated  by  man.  The  carnivores  are 
therefore  by  no  means  superfluous  or  injurious  in  the 
economy  of  wild  nature,  although  they  may  be  injurious, 
or  even  dangerous,  to  man.  A  small  order  of  mammals,  to 
which  the  Bats  belong,  are  Insectivorous. 


288        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

Now  you  may  try  to  find  for  yourself  the  distinguishing 
marks  of  the  order  of  Rodents,  or  Gnawers.  Of  this  im- 
portant order,  Coues  writes  as  follows :  "  Though  a  feeble 
folk,  comparatively  insignificant  in  size  and  strength,  they 
hold  their  own  in  legions  against  a  host  of  natural  enemies, 
rapacious  beasts  and  birds,  by  their  fecundity,  their  wari- 
ness and  cunning,  their  timidity  and  agility,  their  secre- 
tiveness,  each  after  the  means  by  which  it  is  provided  for 
exercising  its  instinct  of  self-preservation,  among  which 
insignificance  itself  is  no  small  factor." 


XII 
SUMMARY   OF   LIFE    IN   THE   WOODS 

§  73.  In  no  other  place  do  we  find  so  many  plants  asso- 
ciated as  we  do  in  the  woods.  There  are,  each  in  its 
favorite  soil  and  locality,  the  many  large  trees ;  under  them 
and  near  them  grow  the  host  of  shrubs,  still  more  numerous 
than  the  trees.  On  trees  and  shrubs  nature's  own  drapery 
of  wild  grapevine,  Virginia  creeper,  and  other  climbers  and 
twiners  is  gorgeously  displayed.  Most  shrubs  and  woody 
vines,  no  doubt,  seek  the  company  of  large  trees  on  account 
of  the  good  soil  and  protection  from  withering  winds  to  be 
found  there ;  but  such  delicate  flowers  as  White  Heart,  or 
Dutchman's  Breeches,  Bloodroot,  Trillium,  and  many  others, 
could  not  endure  the  glaring  light  and  the  heat  of  the  sun, 
nor  the  hot,  dry  winds ;  the  shade  of  the  protecting  foliage 
of  trees  is  absolutely  necessary  to  their  existence.  If  you 
transfer  any  of  these  shade-loving  plants  to  a  sunny  spot 
in  your  garden,  they  will  soon  die.  The  teacher  might  ask 
pupils  to  bring  specimens  of  all  plants  to  be  found  in  the 
nearest  grove.  It  is  not  necessary  that  pupils  or  teachers 
should  know  the  names  of  all  of  them. 

We  have  learned  that  the  woods  are  a  great  plant  community, 
in  which  the  larger  and  stronger  members  protect  and  shelter 
the  weaker  ones. 

This  great  plant  community  attracts  a  rich  animal  life, 
although  we  saw  little  of  this  except  song  birds  and  insects. 

Observations.  —  Look  in  open  streams,  brooks,  springs,  etc.,  for  aquatic 
insects,  fishes,  hibernating  frogs,  crabs,  snails,  and  aquatic  plants, 
u  289 


290        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

Many  of  the  mammals  are  nocturnal,  and  all  of  them  find 
places  of  concealment,  which  shows  that  the  woods  are  the 
favorite  abode  of  many  animals. 

The  demands  animals  make  upon  the  woods  vary  as  much 
as  the  animals  themselves.  Bees  are  attracted  by  the  flowers 
of  plums,  cherries,  and  linden ;  butterflies  are  in  quest  of 
leaves  for  their  caterpillars ;  beetles  and  other  insects  go 
there  to  find  their  favorite  food;  the  birds  are  there  in 
search  of  the  insects  and  wild  berries.  The  frog  squats 
low  to  catch  the  fly,  and  the  hungry  snake  glides  about  to 
find  a  frog.  Large  and  small  game  find  ah  abundance  of 
food  and  shelter  against  the  weather  and  against  their  ene- 
mies. Can  you  tell  now  why  nearly  every  kind  of  carnivo- 
rous animal  also  dwells  in  the  forest  ? 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  woods  are  the  storehouse  of  food  for 
the  animals  living  in  it. 

Willows,  dogwood,  grapevine,  linden,  and  other  plants 
attract  insects  to  their  honey,  and  the  insects  cross-fertilize 
their  flowers.  Birds  and  squirrels  render  important  service 
to  many  plants  by  distributing  their  seeds,  and  by  destroy- 
ing injurious  insects. 

Many  animals  are  important  factors  in  the  plant  life  of  the 
forests,  but  they  are  not  all  beneficial  to  it. 

In  June,  1897,  caterpillars  defoliated  the  forests  in  the 
eastern  part  of  Minnesota  to  such  an  extent  that  most  of 
the  trees  looked  as  they  do  in  January  and  February,  —  not 
a  trace  of  foliage  was  left  on  them. 

Life  in  the  forest  shows  a  marked  decrease  during  the 
winter  months.  All  the  plants  are  resting;  some  mammals, 
the  frogs,  toads,  lizards,  and  snakes,  and  all  the  insects,  are 
hibernating ;  and  nearly  all  of  the  birds  have  left  for  more 
genial  regions.  But  the  warm  sunshine  of  spring  and  the 
April  showers  awaken  nature  to  new  life. 

During  the  summer  months  there  are  more  signs  of  life 


SUMMARY  OF  LIFE  IN  THE  WOODS  291 

during  the  day  than  there  are  at  night.  Bats,  rabbits,  mice, 
a  few  birds,  and  a  number  of  insects  are  most  active  during 
the  night;  but  most  birds,  bees,  grasshoppers,  the  greater 
part  of  our  butterflies,  and  most  squirrels,  are  distinctly 
diurnal. 

§  74.    Forests  in  the  Economy  of  Nature. 

We  have  alluded  a  number  of  times  to  the  important  part 
that  forests  play  in  the  household  of  nature ;  we  will  now  sum 
up  and  recall  what  we  have  learned  about  that  subject.  Let 
us  try  to  recall  what  we  saw  when  a  heavy  shower  caught  us 
last  summer  in  the  woods,  and  when  we  had  to  stand  under 
the  trees  until  the  rain  was  over. 

You  remember  that  the  roads  and  the  cornfield  were  so 
dry  before  the  shower  that  the  dust  was  blown  about  on 
them.  In  the  woods,  however,  no  dust  was  flying,  and  the 
air  felt  very  much  cooler  than  that  which  blew  from  the 
south  across  the  cornfield  which  we  had  passed;  nor  did 
we  find  any  hard  and  baked  soil  such  as  we  had  observed  all 
along  the  road.  In  well-shaded  places  we  discovered  tufts 
of  maidenhair,  and  Bertha  and  Sadie  dug  up  several  tufts  to 
plant  under  their  porches.  You  remember  that  it  had  not 
rained  for  three  weeks,  and  still  the  soil  in  which  the  ferns 
grew  was  quite  moist. 

The  many  fine  roots,  the  humus,  and  the  dense  shade  had 
conserved  the  moisture  in  the  woods  much  longer  than  it  could 
be  retained  by  the  exposed  roads,  fields,  and  prairies. 

Before  we  had  time  to  return  home  the  sky  became  clouded, 
then  the  leaves  began  to  rustle ;  a  little  later  we  heard  a 
roaring  sound  far  off,  but  it  seemed  to  draw  nearer;  a  few 
minutes  later  the  storm  rushed  through  the  tree  tops  over- 
head, ashy  clouds  swept  towards  the  northeast,  and  it 
seemed  to  be  getting  dark.  We  had  found  shelter  under 
low  trees  with  very  dense  branches  and  foliage.  Suddenly 


292        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

a  flash  of  lightning  appeared  to  be  shot  perpendicularly 
from  the  clouds;  a  few  seconds  later  a  crash  of  thunder 
echoed  and  reechoed  through  the  forest.  Then  it  began  to 
rain.  At  first  only  single  drops  came  through  the  leafy 
roofs  above  us,  and  it  had  rained  about  fifteen  minutes  before 
we  were  getting  wet.  On  our  way  home,  however,  we  found 
everything  not  only  wet  but  thoroughly  soaked,  and  leaves 
and  grasses  were  loaded  with  large  drops.  Do  you  remem- 
ber how,  an  hour  later,  the  boys  amused  themselves  with 
shaking  the  rain  from  the  smaller  trees  ?  When  we  passed 
through  the  field,  however,  the  corn,  the  wheat,  and  the 
grass  were  almost  dry,  and  the  roads  were  no  longer  muddy. 
The  next  forenoon  some  of  the  boys  went  into  the  woods 
again  after  flowers  and  found  the  brush  still  very  wet ;  but 
on  roads,  fields,  and  prairie  the  plants  and  the  surface  of 
the  soil  were  perfectly  dry,  although  the  rills  made  by  the 
running  water  were  still  plainly  visible.  Did  we  see  such 
rills  in  the  woods  ? 

From  these  observations  we  deduce  the  following :  In  the 
forests  the  rain  reaches  the  ground  and  soaks  into  it  quite 
slowly ;  it  does  not  fall  upon  bare  soil;  it  forms  no  rills;  a 
considerable  part  is  retained  on  the  foliage  of  trees  and  brush, 
and  this  part  evaporates  slowly  and  thus  cools  the  air. 

Whether  the  water  evaporated  .from  forests  has  any  ap- 
preciable effect  upon  the  rainfall  of  the  region  is  still  a 
question  under  dispute,  but  is  answered  in  the  affirmative 
by  some  good  observers.  It  is,  however,  an  undisputed  fact 
that  treeless  regions  are  more  frequently  visited  by  severe 
storms  and  cyclones  and  by  hot,  scorching  winds.  The 
great  sources  of  moisture  for  our  Eastern  States  and  for  the 
Mississippi  basin  are  the  Atlantic,  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and 
the  Great  Lakes.  As  far  as  local  showers  are  concerned,  it 
seems  to  be  a  fact  that  they  generally  follow  the  wooded 
valleys  and  banks  of  rivers,  or  hover  over  lakes ;  but  the 


SUMMARY   OF  LIFE   IN   THE   WOODS  293 

writer  is  not  able  to  give  a  satisfactory  explanation  of  the 
phenomenon. 

What  becomes  of  the  water  which  soaks  into  the  ground  ? 
At  the  foot  of  a  hill  we  found  one  large  and  a  great  number 
of  small  springs.  All  the  springs  united  to  form  a  little 
stream.  The  boys  told  us  that  the  springs  and  the  stream 
never  dry  up,  and  that  their  size  is  but  little  affected  by 
those  droughts  which  dry  up  many  small  prairie  streams. 
We  walked  down  the  little  stream  to  the  large  creek,  and  in 
both  we  observed  the  current  to  be  very  much  retarded  by 
fallen  leaves,  twigs,  branches,  and  trees. 

From  this  and  former  observations  and  lessons  we  learn, 
that  forests  feed  springs,  brooks,  and  creeks,  and  that  they  tend 
to  regulate  the  water  supply  for  our  large  rivers  and  lakes. 
The  difference  between  high  and  low  water  would  not  be  so 
great  as  it  is  now  if  our  whole  country  ivere  well  wooded. 

We  also  observed  that  washouts  are  not  so  common  in 
the  woods  as  they  are  in  open  fields.  On  many  mountain 
slopes  the  soil  would  be  entirely  washed  away  if  it  were 
not  held  by  roots  of  trees  and  other  plants ;  steep  slopes 
should  therefore  never  be  deforested.  The  roots  of  trees  pene- 
trate the  ground  to  a  much  greater  depth  than  the  roots  of 
grasses  and  herbs.  Decayed  roots,  trunks,  branches,  and 
leaves  have  formed  a  layer  of  black  soil  in  our  deciduous 
forests  several  feet  thick,  much  thicker  than  on  the  prairies. 
We  have  also  observed  that  woods  and  groves  are  very  im- 
portant wind-breaks  against  the  scorching  south  wind  as 
well  as  against  the  icy  blizzard. 

§  75.    Forests  and  Man. 

The  teacher  may  here  call  the  attention  of  the  children  to 
the  endless  variety  of  products  which  man  derives  directly 
and  indirectly  from  the  forests,  and  to  some  of  the  trades 
and  occupations  that  depend  on  the  forest. 


294         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

Important  as  the  influence  of  forests  is  upon  the  material 
welfare  of  man,  its  influence  upon  the  mind  of  man  must 
not  be  overlooked.  To  the  first  settlers  on  our  shores  the 
forests  were  the  abode  of  thousands  of  warlike  Indians.  To 
all  settlers  in  new  countries,  and  to  primitive  man  in  gen- 
eral, the  forests  were  always  fraught  with  unknown  and 
invisible  danger,  and  the  imagination  of  our  children  still 
peoples  the  big  woods  with  hosts  of  bears,  wolves,  and  all 
kinds  of  monsters.  The  dragons  and  other  chimera  which 
were  killed  by  the  knights  of  yore  invariably  lived  in  caves 
in  the  dark  forest.  For  these  obvious  reasons  settlers  in 
a  wild  country  always  fought  the  forest  with  axe  and  fire. 
To-day  we  have  conquered  our  forests.  Groves  and  groups 
of  shade  trees  shelter  our  farms  and  homes;  they  have 
inspired  our  poets,  and  they  enable  us  to  find  rest  and  soli- 
tude whenever  we  are  in  need  of  them.  From  a  nation  of 
forest  destroyers  we  must  now  become  a  nation  of  forest 
planters.  Let  us  hope,  and  let  us  do  our  best,  that  we  may 
accomplish  the  second  task  as  thoroughly  as  we  accom- 
plished the  first. 

REFERENCES 

Shaler.     Chapter  on  Forests  and  Man  in  his  Aspects  of  the  Earth. 

United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  The  Relation  of  Forests  to 
Farms.  Tree  Planting  in  the  Western  Plains.  Forestry  for  Farm- 
ers. 

References  given  under  §  43,  II. 

Poems  and  Places,  North  America,  Edited  by  Longfellow. 

Guyot.     The  Earth  and  Man. 


XIII 

LAKE    AND   RIVER   IN  WINTER.     FEBRUARY 
AND    MARCH 

Although  in  winter  no  such  abundance  of  life  is  seen 
about  us  and  in  lakes  and  rivers  as  we  found  in  the  sum- 
mer time,  nevertheless  there  is  plenty  for  our  study  and 
amusement.  We  can  see  fish  swim  under  the  ice,  water 
plants  cover  the  bottom,  and  aquatic  insects  are  occasion- 
ally observed.  Frogs  and  turtles  have  concealed  them- 
selves in  the  mud,  and  muskrats  have  retired  to  their 
domes,  which  we  can  now  examine  at  our  leisure.  Many 
fishes  can  be  caught  through  the  ice,  while  others  are  sel- 
dom, if  ever,  seen  during  winter. 

The  next  three  paragraphs  can  as  well  be  taken  up  during 
spring,  summer,  or  fall ;  they  are  placed  here  on  account  of 
probable  lack  of  time  during  the  three  seasons  mentioned. 

§  76.  The  Common  Sunfish,  Pumpkin  Seed.  Eupomotis  gib- 
bosus. 

MATERIAL  :  A  live  sunfish  in  some  convenient  vessel ;  a  freshly 
killed  specimen  or  one  preserved  in  alcohol.  Of  the  latter  the  color 
must  be  carefully  noted  before  the  fish  is  put  into  alcohol,  because 
alcohol  changes  the  color  of  plants  and  animals.  A  few  large  min- 
nows illustrate  the  structure  of  the  fish  almost  as  well.  If  the  descrip- 
tion given  does  not  fit  your  sunfish,  suit  your  description  to  your  fish. 
Outdoor  observations. 

Observations.  —  How  streams  and  all  running  water  cut  into  the  ground, 
bowlders  of  different  colors,  texture,  and  size;  the  rocks  exposed  in  your 
vicinity,  waterfalls,  hard  and  soft  coal. 

295 


296        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

The  average  size  of  this  pretty  fish  in  length  and  width 
is  about  that  of  a  boy's  hand,  but  you  will  catch  many  that 
are  smaller.  Can  you  see  why  it  is  called  pumpkin  seed  ? 
The  color  above  is  greenish  with  blue  spots.  The  lower 
side  and  the  cheeks  are  orange  and  the  latter  are  marked 
with  blue  lines.  It  is  a  common  fish  in  nearly  all  our  lakes 
and  rivers. 

The  sunfish,  like  all  fishes,  is  well  adapted  to  a  life  in  the 
water,  in  which  alone  it  is  able  to  breathe.  Watch  it  in  the 
water  and  see  how  it  seems  to  swallow  some  every  second. 
This  water  passes  out  under  two  covers  behind  and  below 
the  eyes.  Under  these  covers  you  find  delicate,  blood-red 
organs  which  look  somewhat  like  small  feathers  and  are 
attached  to  semicircular  bones.  These  red  organs  are  the 
gills,  and  with  them  the  fish  separates  the  air  from  the 
water  and  breathes  the  air.  The  gills  are  the  lungs  of  the 
fish,  but  it  can  breathe  with  them  in  water  only.  When  it  is 
taken  out  of  the  water,  it  gasps  for  air,  its  gills  stick  together, 
and  in  a  short  time  the  fish  dies  of  suffocation.  A  fish  will 
exhaust  the  air  from  a  pan  of  water  in  a  short  time,  and 
must  then  be  given  fresh  water.  In  the  summer  you  must 
change  the  water  for  a  fish  more  frequently  than  in  the 
winter,  because  warm  water  holds  less  air  than  cold  water. 
You  can  keep  a  few  minnows  in  a  tin  pail  for  a  long  time. 
Feed  them  with  a  few  crumbs  of  wheat  bread  three  times  a 
week  and  change  the  water  after  feeding. 

The  body  of  a  fish  is  so  shaped  that  it  can  easily  cut  through 
water.  'The  sunfish  has  one  pair  of  fins  behind  the  gill 
covers  and  another  pair  on  the  abdomen.  With  these  two 
pairs  of  fins,  together  with  the  large  tail  fin,  the  fish  pro- 
pels itself  rapidly  through  the  water,  at  the  same  time  using 
the  tail  as  a  rudder.  One  fin  on  the  back  and  another 

Observations.  —  Fossils  in  the  rocks  or  in  collections. 


LAKE   AND   RIVER   IN   WINTER  297 

below,  in  front  of  the  tail,  also  aid  the  fish  in  keeping  its 
direction  and  position,  both  acting  like  a  keel-board  on  a 
boat.  Does  a  boat  in  any  way  resemble  the  shape  of  a 
fish? 

The  body  of  our  little  fish  is  covered  with  scales  which 
overlap  like  shingles  on  a  roof.  Some  fishes,  as  the  bull- 
heads and  eels,  have  no  scales,  but  all  fishes  are  made  slip- 
pery by  a  thin  coating  of  slime.  The  smooth  covering  of 
fishes  is  also  of  great  advantage  to  them  for  moving  rapidly 
in  the  tvater.  Sailors  have  found  that  a  vessel  whose  sub- 
merged part  is  overgrown  with  seaweeds  cannot  make  as 
good  time  as  one  whose  hulk  is  smooth  and  clean. 

The  eyes  of  our  sunfish  are  large  and  it  does  not  take 
them  long  to  see  the  worm  when  they  are  hungry.  Their 
lips  are  organs  of  touch;  the  nasal  openings  do  not  go 
through  into  the  mouth.  Although  they  have  no  visible  ears, 
they  can  perceive  a  shock  caused  by  dropping  something  into 
the  water.  The  tongue  of  most  fishes  is  small,  and  is  more 
an  organ  of  touch  than  of  taste,  because  all  fishes  swallow 
their  food  whole.  The  sunfish  has  a  great  many  small  teeth, 
but  they  only  serve  to  seize  and  hold  their  prey. 

All  fish  lay  their  eggs,  called  roe,  in  the  water,  and  but 
very  few  of  them  pay  any  attention  to  the  eggs*  or  to  the 
young.  Indeed,  the  large  ones  generally  eat  all  the  eggs 
and  the  young  which  they  find  and  catch.  Under  those  con- 
ditions it  is  natural  that -but  few  eggs  hatch  and  that  few 
young  fishes  grow  up  •  therefore  most  fishes  lay  an  enormous 
number  of  eggs. 

The  sunfish  lives  on  insects,  worms,  small  minnows,  and 
other  small  aquatic  animals.  When  you  catch  a  fish  which 
is  too  small  to  be  cleaned  and  eaten,  you  must  carefully  take 
it  off  the  hook  and  put  it  back  into  the  water.  To  let  the 
small  fish  die  would  be  cruel,  and  would  be  foolish,  too,  be- 
cause it  destroys  your  own  sport. 


298        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

Can  you  tell  why  pickerel  and  bass  do  not  often  eat  a 
sunfish  ? 

§  77.  The   Pickerel.  .  Lucius  lutius. 

MATERIAL:  Similar  to  that  for  the  sunfish.  See  the  report  on  the 
fishes  of  your  state. 

Study  the  structure  and  color  of  the  pickerel  as  you  did  those  of 
the  sunfish.  Other  fishes  may  be  substituted  for  both  of  them. 

The  pickerel  is  the  tyrant  of  our  lakes  and  rivers.  He 
attains  a  length  of  four  feet  and  will  swallow  any  fish  that 
is  not  too  big  for  that  performance.  Pickerel  increase  and 
grow  very  rapidly;  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  eggs 
were  found  in  one.  It  is  fortunate  for  other  fish  that  most 
young  pickerel  are  swallowed  by  larger  members  of  their 
own  kind. 

§  78.   The  Crayfish,  or  Fresh-water  Crab. 

MATERIAL  :  Live  crayfish  or  alcoholic  specimens.  Observe  in  the 
classroom  how  a  crab  eats,  walks,  and  swims  ;  observations  at  the  lake 
or  stream.  Remove  the  large  thorax  carapace  from  an  alcoholic  speci- 
men and  show  the  branched  gills  below.  Crayfishes  must  be  pro- 
cured in  the  fall  if  this  lesson  is  given  in  winter. 

The  crayfish,  or  fresh-water  crab,  is  found  in  nearly  all 
the  streams,  lakes,  and  ponds  of  the  United  States  and  Can- 
ada, but  it  is  probably  absent  from  waters  which  are  very 
soft,  because  such  waters  contain  so  little  lime  that  the 
crayfish  could  not  form  its  hard,  outside  skeleton,  or  crust, 
in  them,  as  for  this  process  lime  is  necessary. 

Description.  —  The  most  conspicuous  peculiarity  of  the 
crayfish  is  the  hard  crust,  in  which  its  body  and  limbs  are 
encased. 

The  head  and  the  chest  are  covered  by  a  continuous  shield, 
called  the  carapace.  Behind  the  thorax  we  find  six  well- 
marked  segments,  which  constitute  the  abdomen.  The  tail, 
which  consists  of  five  flaps,  is  attached  to  the  last  abdominal 
segment. 


LAKE   AND   RIVER   IN  WINTER  299 

A  crayfish  has  five  pairs  of  legs.  Observation  of  a  live 
crayfish  will  teach  you  that  the  first  pair,  which  are  modi- 
fied into  the  dreaded  claws  or  pinchers,  are  not  used  for  walk- 
ing, but  are  offensive  and  defensive  weapons.  You  can 
often  see  crayfishes  walking  slowly  over  the  bottom ;  when, 
however,  they  wish  to  escape  from  danger,  they  strike  the 
water  downward  with  their  tail  and  swim  rapidly  back- 
ward. The  mouth  of  the  crayfish  is  a  rather  large  opening 
under  the  head ;  it  is  large  enough  to  admit  the  head  of  a 
large  pin,  and  is  surrounded  with  very  complicated  prehen- 
sile and  masticating  organs. 

The  eyes  of  the  crayfish  are  black  and  set  on  little  stalks ; 
they  can  be  moved  in  all  directions,  and,  when  danger 
threatens,  they  are  laid  down  in  a  furrow  under  the  point 
of  the  head  shield.  The  head  is  also  provided  with  a  pair 
of  long,  thread-like  feelers,  or  antennae.  These  long  an- 
tennae are  delicate  organs  of  touch.  Just  above  them  is  a 
pair  of  shorter  antennae,  which  contain  the  organs  of  hear- 
ing. It  is  also  highly  probable  that  crayfishes  can  smell 
and  taste,  but  the  organs  for  these  senses  have  not  been 
made  out  with  absolute  certainty. 

The  color  of  the  crayfish  is  a  dark  olive-green,  which 
blends  very  nicely  with  the  weeds  and  stones  among  which 
it  lives.  Crayfish  very  often  live  in  holes,  which  they  dig 
near  the  water.  If  the  water  dries  up  temporarily,  they 
dig  their  holes  deeper,  until  they  reach  moisture.  If  you 
remove  the  carapace  of  a  crayfish,  you  will  find  the  feather- 
shaped  gills  below  it.  By  means  of  these  gills  the  animal 
can  breathe  in  air  as  well  as  in  water,  as  long  as  its  gills 
are  kept  moist.  Transporting  live  crayfish  is  accomplished 
much  better  by  putting  them  in  wet  grass  or  leaves  than  by 
keeping  them  in  a  pailful  of  water.  You  can  induce  the 
crayfish  to  leave  their  holes  by  stamping  around  them  or 
by  pouring  water  into  them. 


300         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

The  food  of  the  crayfish  consists  of  snails,  insect  larvae, 
tadpoles,  small  frogs,  dead  animals,  and  aquatic  plants. 
Crabs  should  be  kept  in  an  aquarium  by  themselves,  be- 
cause they  are  likely  either  to  eat  or  to  injure  other  small 
aquarian  animals. 

During  the  winter,  crayfish  hide  themselves.  They  re- 
appear in  early  spring,  and  at  this  time  the  females  are 
laden  with  eggs,  which  they  carry  beneath  the  tail,  and 
which  look  like  a  mass  of  small  berries.  The  eggs  hatch 
in  May  or  June,  and  the  young,  which  closely  resemble  the 
adults,  attach  themselves  to  the  mother  for  several  days. 

After  a  crayfish  has  been  boiled,  its  calcareous  shell  looks 
red,  and  can  now  be  easily  separated  from  the  white  flesh 
within  it.  Vertebrate  animals  have  their  bones  surrounded 
by  flesh,  but  you  see  that  the  crayfish  has  its  flesh  sur- 
rounded by  bones.  The  flesh  and  blood  of  the  crayfish  are 
white.  How  do  you  think  this  animal  can  grow  in  its 
tightly  fitting  armor  ?  You  can  easily  convince  yourself 
that  it  will  not  stretch.  Once  or  several  times  a  year,  the 
crayfish  casts  off  its  old  integument.  It  splits  below,  and 
the  animal  crawls  out  of  it,  and  pulls  its  legs,  feelers,  and 
eyes  out  too.  Frequently  you  will  find  the  crust,  which 
looks  just  like  the  animal  in  shape,  but  is  of  a  lighter  color. 
It  is  not  rare  that  one  or  more  of  the  legs  are  broken  in  the 
process  of  moulting;  but  this  does  not  seriously  incon- 
venience our  armored  knight,  as  he  has  the  peculiar  power 
to  repair  any  limb  which  has  become  detached  or  mutilated. 

We  must  place  the  crayfish  among  the  useful  animals, 
because  it  acts  as  a  scavenger  in  the  water,  and  furnishes  us 
with  palatable  food. 

Teachers  and  pupils  who  would  like  to  study  aquatic  animals  are 
referred  to  the  very  interesting  book,  Fresh  Water  Aquaria,  by  G. 
C.  Bateman.  Though  intended  for  England,  it  serves  very  well  for 
this  country. 


LAKE   AND   RIVER   IN   WINTER  301 

§  79.    Review  and  Summary. 

Fish,  crabs,  and  other  animals  which  breathe  by  means 
of  gills  are  compelled  to  live  in  the  water,  and  most  of 
them  can  breathe  only  the  air  that  is  dissolved  in  water. 
Some,  like  the  trout,  prefer  cold  streams ;  others,  like  the 
tadpoles,  like  warm  ponds.  For  their  food  they  depend 
upon  plants,  upon  smaller  animals,  or  upon  one  another. 
Fishes  must  lay  a  large  number  of  eggs,  because  they  do  not 
take  care  of  them,  and  they  would  soon  become  extinct  if  it 
were  not  for  the  enormous  number  of  eggs  produced. 

Fresh-water  and  marine  fish  and  salt-water  lobsters  fur- 
nish food  and  work  for  many  thousands  of  people.  Our 
lakes,  rivers,  ocean  bays  and  banks,  at  one  time,  teemed 
with  fish,  but  ruthless  slaughter  has  caused  many  good 
grounds  to  be  "fished  out."  Several  states,  as  well  as  the 
Federal  Government,  have  established  fish-hatcheries  for 
the  purpose  of  stocking,  or  restocking,  our  waters  with 
valuable  food  and  game  fish.  The  fish  in  lakes  and  rivers 
furnish  so  much  healthful  recreation  to  young  and  old,  to 
rich  and  poor,  that  their  preservation  is  of  even  greater 
importance  than  the  preservation  of  other  animals. 

Catch  no  fish  in  their  spawning  season,  and  promptly  return 
to  the  water  all  fish  that  are  too  small  to  be  used,  is  the  rule 
of  every  intelligent  fisherman. 

Much  damage  is  often  done  to  river  fish  by  city  and  farm 
sewerage  and  by  the  waste  product  of  factories. 


XIV 
REVIEW    OF   ANIMAL   LIFE 

§  80.  a.  Classes  of  animals.  —  The  lowest  animal  which 
we  have  studied  is  the  Earthworm.  Other  well-known 
worms  are  the  Roundworm  (Ascaris  lumbricoides)  and  the 
Tapeworm,  both  parasitic  in  the  intestines  of  man.  Com- 
mon aquatic  forms  are  the  Leeches,  generally  called  Blood- 
suckers by  children. 

All  worms  have  a  soft,  elongated,  and  contractile  body. 
The  body  consists  of  rings  or  segments,  and  there  is  no 
distinct  head,  thorax,  or  abdomen.  Their  body  is  not  pro- 
tected against  the  evaporation  of  moisture,  and  therefore 
they  can  live  in  moist  places  only.  When  do  earthworms 
move  about  ?  What  becomes  of  them  if  they  are  acciden- 
tally placed  on  dry  boards  or  stones  ?  Can  they  creep  over 
dry  ground  ? 

You  must  remember  that  the  maggots  of  flies,  the  grubs 
of  beetles,  and  the  larvae  of  butterflies  and  moths,  although 
often  called  worms,  are  not  worms. 

Articulates.  —  These  animals,  to  which  the  Crabs,  Spiders, 
and  Insects  belong,  are  much  more  highly  organized  than  the 
worms.  The  covering  of  their  body  is  hard,  and  does  not 
restrict  them  to  moist  places.  This  hard  armor  consists  of 
several  rings  or  segments,  and  does,  therefore,  not  seriously 
interfere  with  their  motions.  All  of  them  show  more  or 
less  distinctly  a  head,  a  thorax,  and  an  abdomen.  They 
have  paired  legs,  and  are  provided  with  distinct  organs  of 
sight  and  touch,  and  many  have  also  organs  of  scent  and 

302 


REVIEW   OF  ANIMAL  LIFE  303 

hearing.  The  highest  animals  among  the  articulates  are 
the  insects. 

The  Molluscs  form  another  class,  with  which  you  are  quite 
familiar.  The  oyster,  the  clams,  the  different  kinds  of  snails 
and  slugs,  belong  to  this  class.  Most  of  them  live  in  hard 
calcareous  shells,  which  protect  their  soft  bodies. 

Worms,  articulates,  and  molluscs  have  no  bony  skeleton. 
Fishes,  frogs,  snakes,  birds,  and  mammals  do  have  a  bony 
skeleton,  whose  principal  part  is  the  backbone,  or  vertebral 
column,  which  consists  of  a  large  number  of  bones  called 
vertebrae. 

Worms,  articulates,  and  molluscs  belong  to  the  great  division 
of  invertebrates  ;  fishes,  frogs,  snakes,  birds,  and  mammals 
are  vertebrates. 

The  lowest  among  the  vertebrates  are  the  Fishes.  The 
structure  of  their  breathing  organs,  the  gills,  restricts  them 
to  a  life  in  the  water.  Fins  are  their  limbs  of  locomotion, 
their  sense  organs  are  not  highly  developed,  and  their  brain 
is  very  small. 

The  next  higher  class,  the  Amphibians,  comprises  such 
animals  as  frogs,  toads,  and  salamanders.  These  animals 
lay  their  eggs  in  water  like  fishes,  but  the  young  do  not, 
at  first,  resemble  the  adult,  and  pass  through  a  metamor- 
phosis. During  the  polliwog  state  they  can  breathe  only 
in  water  by  means  of  gills.  After  some  time  their  lungs 
develop ;  they  can  now  breathe  in  the  air,  and  they  acquire 
the  form  of  the  adults.  Amphibians  are  covered  with  a  soft, 
naked  skin ;  they  live  in  or  near  water,  and  in  moist,  shady 
places. 

The  next  higher  class,  the  Reptiles,  deposit  their  eggs  in 
the  ground,  where  they  are  hatched  by  the  warmth  of  the 
sun.  The  young  breathe  at  once  by  means  of  lungs,  and 
resemble  the  adults.  To  this  class  belong  snakes,  lizards, 
turtles,  and  alligators.  Reptiles  are  covered  with  scales  or 


304         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

with,  horny  plates.  The  smaller  ones  are  well  adapted  to 
live  in  holes  or  in  rock  crevices.  The  blood  of  fishes,  am- 
phibians, and  reptiles  has  about  the  temperature  of  the  air 
or  the  water  in  which  they  live,  and  they  always  feel  cool 
to  our  touch,  and  for  this  reason  they  are  often  called  cold- 
blooded animals. 

Higher  than  the  reptiles  stand  the  Birds  and  the  Mam- 
mals. The  blood  of  these  two  classes  is  kept  at  a  uniformly 
high  temperature  winter  and  summer;  they  are  therefore 
often  spoken  of  as  warm-blooded  animals.  For  reasons  given 
under  "Review  of  Birds  and  Review  of  Mammals,"  the 
latter  must  be  placed  at  the  head  of  the  animal  kingdom. 

This  brief  sketch  is  not  even  an  attempt  at  a  complete 
classification ;  in  fact,  many  important  classes  of  marine 
animals  have  not  been  mentioned  at  all. 

b.  Conditions  for  animal  life.  —  Animals  depend  for  food 
either  upon  plants  or  upon  other  animals.  All  of  them  need 
air,  which  they  breathe  directly  by  means  of  lungs,  or  absorb 
it  from  the  water  by  means  of  gills.  Nor  can  one  of  them 
live  entirely  without  water,  although  some  find  a  sufficient 
amount  of  it  in  the  food  which  they  eat.  Warmth  and 
light,  as*  you  can  easily  prove,  are  also  important  factors  in 
animal  life. 


XV 

THE  EFFECT  OF  WATER  AND  ICE,  OF 
ANIMALS  AND  PLANTS,  AND  OF  HEAT 
UPON  THE  EARTH 

MATERIAL  :  Pieces  of  rock  containing  fossils,  coral,  slate,  and  coal, 
with  impressions  of  plants  ;  peat ;  pictures  of  a  volcano ;  pieces  of 
lava.  If  practicable,  take  the  children  to  a  place  where  they  can 
collect  and  observe  fossils  in  their  natural  position  in  the  rocks. 
About  localities  for  collecting  fossils  consult  the  Geological  Keports 
of  your  state,  write  to  the  nearest  high  school  or  to  your  state 
geologist.  Keview  briefly  the  chapter  on  "  Geological  Effect  of 
Water." 

§  81.  We  have  learned  by  former  observations  that  run- 
ning water  erodes  the  rocks  and  carries  the  pulverized 
material  into  lakes  and  river  valleys  and  finally  into  the 
ocean.  A  great  deal  of  the  soil  in  the  Mississippi  basin 
and  on  the  Atlantic  slope  has  been  made  in  this  way. 
Many  large  rivers  of  the  world  have  formed  fertile  plains 
and  deltas  by  means  of  the  soil  they  brought  down  from 
the  highlands  near  their  sources.  This  work  has  been 
going  on  since  the  rivers  began  to  flow,  and  it  is  still  going 
on,  because  we  know  that  all  deltas  are  growing  seaward. 
Many  rivers  form  no  deltas,  because  the  material  they  carry 
into  the  sea  is  taken  up  by  ocean  currents  and  swept  into 
the  deep  sea,  where  its  accumulation  is  not  observed.  What 
we  have  said  about  the  transportation  of  fine  soil  you  can 
all  understand  and  prove  by  observation,  but  it  is  more 

Note.  —  Arrange  with  your  pupils  to  make  such  observations  as  are 
calculated  to  carry  on  the  work  they  have  begun. 
x  305 


306         HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

difficult  to  prove  where  the  detached  stones  or  bowlders 
came  from. 

Everywhere  in  our  Northern  States,  but  especially  along 
rivers,  streams,  and  lake  shores,  we  find  large  and  small 
stones  which  do  not  consist  of  the  same  material  as  the 
nearest  stratified  rock ;  they  are  nearly  always  much  harder 
than  the  nearest  sandstone  and  limestone,  and  show  a  great 
variety  of  color  and  texture.  Occasionally  a  bowlder  is 
found  which  is  so  large  that  twenty  horses  could  not  move 
it  an  inch.  Shall  we  believe  that  once  water  rushed  over  all 
our  Northern  States  with  such  terrific  velocity  that  it  could 
move  and  scatter  these  monstrous  rocks  ?  No,  we  must 
look  to  another  agency  for  an  explanation  of  the  presence 
of  these  bowlders. 

Geologists  have  proved  beyond  a  reasonable  doubt  that  there 
tvas  a  time  when  this  country  was  covered  by  a  sheet  of  ice 
thousands  of  feet  thick.  This  ice  began  to  form  in  Canada 
and  in  the  Great  Lake  regions  and  was  thickest  there.  On 
account  of  the  slope  of  the  land,  and  by  its  own  weight,  it 
crept  slowly  southward  until  it  covered  all  our  Northern 
States  from  Long  Island  to  near  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio 
Biver ;  from  there  its  southern  margin  extended  in  a  north- 
westerly direction  to  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri,  and  ex- 
tended up  that  river  into  the  Yellowstone  Park  region. 
This  slowly  moving  ice  field  broke  many  pieces  of  rock 
from  mountain  and  hill  sides,  and  others  it  carried  along  on 
the  bottom.  When  the  climate  grew  warmer  again,  the  ice 
melted  and  dropped  stones  and  soil  where  we  find  them 
to-day.  The  bowlders  are  of  the  same  structure  as  the 
rocks  farther  north  over  which  the  glacier  flowed.  The 
farther  south  one  goes,  the  smaller  the  bowlders  grow,  and 
finally  none  are  found  any  more.  Some  of  you  may  know 

They  should  write  up,  in  brief  form,  the  results  of  the  trips  and  walks 
they  take  from  time  to  time. 


THE   ICE   AGE  307 

that  much  copper  is  mined  on  the  south  shore  of  Lake 
Superior,  especially  on  the  Keweenaw  Peninsula.  Large 
pieces  of  almost  pure  copper  are  common  here,  and  have  no 
doubt  been  formed  where  we  find  them  to-day.  If,  how- 
ever, you  should  now  and  then  find  large  pieces  of  metallic 
copper  in  the  glacial  soil  at  St.  Paul  and  Minneapolis,  and 
even  as  far  south  as  Illinois  and  Iowa,  you  would  find  this 
metal  far  from  its  natural  source  or  origin,  and  as  a  think- 
ing person  you  would  ask,  How  did  it  come  to  be  there  ? 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  such  pieces  of  copper  are  frequently 
found  in  the  regions  mentioned,  and  generally  show  that 
they  have  been  pressed  or  rolled  by  some  heavy  mass.  The 
only  reasonable  explanation  is  that  they  were  dropped  by 
the  melting  ice  sheet.  Geologists  have  calculated  from  re- 
ceding river  gorges,  like  that  of  Niagara  below  its  falls,  and 
that  of  the  Mississippi  between  Fort  Snelling  and  Minne- 
apolis, that  the  ice  probably  disappeared  between  ten  and 
twenty  thousand  years  ago ;  but  nothing  is  known  about 
the  length  of  the  glacial  epoch  itself.  There  is  good  evi- 
dence that  northern  Europe  had  its  glacial  epoch  as  well  as 
North  America. 

For  information  about  the  probable  causes  of  the  glacial  epoch  and 
for  further  proofs  of  it,  the  teacher  is  referred  to  some  text-book  on 
geology.  On  the  recession  of  the  Mississippi  gorge,  see  Geology  of 
Hennepin  County  in  the  Final  Report  of  the  Minnesota  State 
Geologist. 

§  82.  Formations  consisting  of  vegetable  debris.  —  When 
we  studied  the  mosses,  we  learned  that  thick  layers  of  peat 
have  been  formed,  and  are  still  being  formed,  by  the  decay 
of  mosses  and  other  vegetation.  The  coal  beds,  which  are 
from  less  than  an  inch  to  forty  feet  thick,  were  also  formed  by 
plants.  This  is  proved  by  the  many  impressions  of  plants 
we  find  in  them,  and  also  by  roots  and  tree-trunks  which 
have  been  discovered  in  them.  The  coal  plants  were  mostly 


308        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

tree-like  ferns,  horsetails,  and  lycopods,  which  grew  in  vast 
swamps.  Here  one  generation  after  the  other  fell  into  the 
shallow  water,  the  land  was  slowly  sinking,  the  salt  water 
of  the  ocean  killed  the  plants,  and  the  thick  mass  of  debris 
was  covered  by  clay  and  sand,  which  was  carried  in  from 
the  adjacent  land.  A  slow  process  of  decay,  and  the  great 
pressure  exerted  upon  them,  has  left  nothing  of  these  grand 
forests  but  the  coal,  which  was  in  their  trunks  and  foliage. 
Geologists  believe  that  millions  of  years  have  passed  since 
the  coal  plants  nourished. 

Formations  made  by  the  remains  of  animals.  —  Let  us 
carefully  examine  these  pieces  of  limestone  and  marble. 
We  find  that  they  consist  entirely  of  shells  and  other  cal- 
careous remains  '  of  animals.  We  also  know  that  corals 
form  islands  and  reefs,  the  latter  sometimes  being  hundreds 
of  miles  long.  Rock  formed  by  animal  remains  is  lime- 
stone ;  and  it  has  been  calculated  that  the  average  thickness 
of  this  rock  over  all  the  continents  is  about  five  hundred 
feet.  The  white  chalk  cliffs  of  England  and  France  are 
also  the  calcareous  remains  of  very  small  animals. 

§  83.  Finally,  we  must  mention  the  interior  heat  of  the 
earth  as  an  important  factor  in  determining  the  character  of  its 
surface.  Whether  the  earth's  interior  is  solid  or  liquid  is  still 
a  mooted  question ;  but  the  high  temperature  in  deep  mines, 
the  boiling  waters  ejected  by  geysers,  and  the  glowing  lava, 
or  melted  rock,  and  steam  erupted  by  volcanoes,  is  sufficient 
evidence  that  a  temperature  high  enough  to  melt  all  the 
rocks,  metals,  and  minerals  we  know  of  prevails  in  the 
interior  of  the  earth.  Volcanoes  often  eject  enough  lava 
and  ashes  to  cover  many  square  miles,  and  have  buried 
whole  cities.  Hundreds  of  square  miles  in  the  Eocky 
Mountains  are  covered  by  lava,  which  very  long  ago  came 
up  through  great  fissures  in  the  stratified  rocks.  It  is  a 


INTERIOR   HEAT   OF   THE   EARTH  309 

generally  accepted  theory  that  the  whole  earth  was  once 
a  glowing  liquid  mass,  like  melted  iron.  As  this  heated  globe 
continually  gave  off  large  amounts  of  heat  into  space,  a 
solid  crust  was  formed  around  the  melted  interior.  When 
a  body  cools,  it  contracts.  The  contraction  of  the  globe 
caused  its  solid  crust  to  be  thrown  up  into  huge  wrinkles, 
which  are  now  the  mountain  ranges ;  while  the  lower  places 
were  filled  up  by  the  waters  of  the  ocean.  Since  that  time, 
many  shallow  seas  have  been  partially  filled  up  by  deposits 
carried  into  them  by  rivers  and  waves,  and  have  later  been 
lifted  up,  and  become  dry  land.  Over  three-fourths  of  the 
surface  rock  in  North  America  is  stratified,  and  contains 
marine  fossils,  which  is  positive  proof  that  the  ocean  once 
covered  all  of  this  area.  At  the  present  time,  layers  of 
ocean-made  rock  form  the  very  peaks  of  many  snow-clad 
mountains.  In  other  places,  land,  once  formed,  sank  again  ; 
and  forests,  fields,  and  towns  were  buried  beneath  the 
waves.  Changes  like  the  ones  just  described  have  been 
going  on  ever  since  there  was  land  and  water  on  the  globe, 
and  they  are  still  going  on ;  but  with  the  exception  of  those 
taking  place  on  the  shores  of  the  ocean,  and  those  resulting 
from  severe  earthquakes  and  volcanic  eruptions,  they  take 
place  so  slowly  that  only  trained  observers  notice  them. 
Do  rivers  raise  or  lower  the  land  ?  Do  our  lakes  become 
deeper,  or  can  you  detect  agencies  that  tend  to  fill  them  in  ? 
The  teacher  should  point  out  how  streams  and  rivers  have 
carved,  or  eroded,  soil  and  rock. 

REFERENCES 

Tarr.          Physical  Geography.     The  Macmillan  Company. 
Tarr.          Elementary  Geography.     The  Macmillan  Company. 
Heilprin.     The  Earth  and  its  Story.     Silver,  Burdett  &  Co. 


XVI 

ANIMATE  AND  INANIMATE  NATURE; 
PLANTS,  ANIMALS,  AND  MAN  IN  THEIR 
RELATION  TO  ONE  ANOTHER 

§  84.  The  earth  is  acted  upon  by  the  physical  forces  of  nature, 
and  has  been  thus  influenced  ever  since  it  came  into  existence. 
Earthquakes,  volcanic  eruptions,  ocean  waves  and  currents, 
rivers,  rains,  and  winds  destroy  land  in  one  place  and  make 
new  land  in  other  places.  Compared  with  the  work  of  these 
agencies,  the  influence  of  plants  and  animals  seems  insignifi- 
cant, although  it  is  of  great  importance  for  man. 

Plants  increase  the  fertility  of  the  soil  by  the  decay  of 
their  roots,  leaves,  stalks,  and  wood.  The  dark  color  in  the 
surface  soil  is  due  to  the  finely  divided  particles  of  decayed 
vegetation.  In  forest  regions  this  black  surface  soil  is 
sometimes  three  feet  thick,  while  in  the  prairie  regions  it 
is  seldom  more  than  a  foot  thick.  This  admixture  of 
decayed  vegetation  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the 
agriculturist,  because  very  few  plants  grow  in  pure  sand 
or  in  pure  clay.  The  roots  of  plants  penetrate  into  the 
crevices  of  rocks,  and,  by  their  growth,  widen  the  cracks ; 
and  the  carbonic  acid,  which  is  one  of  the  products  of  the 
decay  of  plant  and  animal  tissue,  accelerates  the  rotting 
of  rocks.  Rocks  which  are  not  below  the  frost  line  are 
much  changed  by  that  agency.  The  moisture,  penetrating 
the  fine  vertical  cracks  and  accumulating  under  the  horizon- 
tal layers,  expands  very  powerfully  when  it  freezes,  and 

310 


ANIMATE    AND   INANIMATE   NATURE  311 

thus  breaks  the  rock  into  many  small  pieces,  and  prepares 
the  way  for  roots. 

Still  less  conspicuous  than  the  influence  of  plants  is  that 
of  animals.  Worms,  ants,  gophers,  and  other  burrowing 
animals  really  subject  the  soil  to  a  slow  process  of  cultiva- 
tion. 

In  northern  countries,  plants  have  formed  extensive  peat 
bogs,  and  large  accumulations  of  vegetable  debris  are  form- 
ing in  the  Everglades  of  Florida  and  in  other  sub-tropical 
and  tropical  swamps,  and  even  the  coal  beds  are  the  remains  of 
decayed  forests.  In  the  making  of  rocks,  however,  animals 
have  played  a  much  more  important  part  than  plants. 
Chalk,  limestone,  and  marble  are  nothing  but  the  calcareous 
remains  of  animals. 

Plants  in  their  relation  to  inanimate  nature  and  to  animals. 
Plants  need  air  and  water  and  several  mineral  substances 
for  the  building  up  of  their  tissue.  They  also  depend  on 
warmth,  light,  and  winds  for  favorable  conditions  of  life. 
Many  plants  depend  upon  animals  for  cross-fertilization  or 
for  the  dissemination  of  their  seeds. 

Animals  also  depend  upon  plants  and  upon  inanimate 
nature  for  the  conditions  of  their  existence.  They  need 
water,  air,  warmth,  and  light  as  well  as  plants,  although 
light  is  not  so  all-important  for  them  as  it  is  for  plants. 
Animals  are  not  able  to  feed  upon  the  lifeless  mineral 
matter  in  the  soil.  This  power  is  possessed  by  plants  only, 
and  animals  depend  on  them  for  food.  No  animals  could 
exist  if  there  were  no  vegetation  on  the  earth. 

When  plants  and  animals  decay,  a  part  of  the  substance 
of  their  bodies  is  returned  to  the  atmosphere  in  the  form  of 
gases ;  the  mineral  matter  and  the  water  are  returned  to  the 
soil,  whence  they  originally  came. 

§  85.  Man  himself  is  connected  in  many  ways  with  animate 
and  inanimate  nature.  He  cannot  exist  without  air,  water. 


312        HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY 

and  light ;  climate  and  temperature  influence  his  well-being, 
and  he  depends  for  food  on  the  soil  he  tills. 

Man  has,  however,  on  his  part,  exerted  a  most  powerful 
influence  upon  nature.  By  converting  forests  and  prairies 
into  fields,  by  draining  swamps,  by  building  cities,  roads, 
and  railways,  he  has  changed  the  aspect  of  whole  conti- 
nents. He  has  exterminated  many  animals  and  domes- 
ticated others,  causing  them  to  increase  far  beyond  the 
number  which  they  could  have  reached  in  a  wild  state. 
Man's  physical  strength  is  not  great,  if  we  compare  him 
with  the  largest  animals;  but  his  hand,  directed  by  a 
superior  intellect,  is  able  either  to  subdue  or  exterminate 
the  fiercest  and  largest  animals.  His  intellect  has  invented 
means  which  enable  him  to  cross  the  never-resting  ocean, 
as  well  as  the  dreary  desert ;  he  can  live  tinder  the  heat  of 
an  equatorial  sun  and  on  the  ice  fields  of  Greenland;  the 
sunlight  paints  his  pictures,  and  the  lightning's  flash  con- 
veys his  thoughts  around  the  globe ;  he  is  fulfilling  the 
prophetic  words,  "  Replenish  the  earth  and  subdue  it,  and 
have  dominion  over  the  fish  of  the  sea  and  over  the  fowl  of 
the  air,  and  over  everything  that  moveth  upon  the  earth." 

Man  is  the  only  being  on  earth  that  is  conscious  of  the  laws 
and  workings  of  nature. 

§  86.  Just  as  every  plant,  every  animal,  and  every  stone 
on  the  earth  is  only  a  part  of  the  whole  and  is  intimately 
connected  with  the  whole,  so  the  earth  itself  is  only  one  of 
the  large  heavenly  bodies  of  our  solar  system.  For  its  life- 
giving  warmth  and  light,  the  earth  depends  on  the  sun;  and  if 
his  blazing  light  should  ever  be  extinguished,  all  life  on  our 
earth  would  become  extinct. 


APPENDIX 


I.     FIELD   WORK   AND   FIELD   LESSONS 

WHILE  you  are  studying  in  school  the  topics  treated  in  a  certain 
chapter,  let  the  pupils  make  outdoor  observations  for  the  topics  of 
the  next  chapter.  You  will  find  many  suggestions  for  these  obser- 
vations in  the  foot-notes,  but  you  will  obtain  the  best  results  if  you 
carefully  adapt  the  Nature  Study  work  to  the  locality  and  con- 
ditions of  your  school. 

Besides  the  observations,  which  the  pupils  should  make  for  them- 
selves, several  well-planned  field  lessons  should  be  given  by  the 
teacher,  who  must  be  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  woods,  or  field, 
or  valley  where  the  lesson  is  to  be  given.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  tell 
the  children  what  they  are  expected  to  look  for  and  to  find. 
About  the  time,  the  distance,  and  the  number  of  pupils  for  these 
field  lessons,  the  teacher  is  the  best  judge.  This  book  treats  the 
subject  of  Nature  Study  without  taking  into  account  the  summer 
vacation.  As  summer  is  the  best  time  for  observing  plant  and 
animal  life,  the  teacher  should  give  the  pupils  a  syllabus  of  obser- 
vations to  be  made  during  vacation,  and  should  ask  for  reports  on 
these  at  the  next  opening  of  school. 

II.     MATERIAL 

It  is  not  expected  that  every  teacher  will  be  able  to  procure  all 
the  material  mentioned  for  each  lesson.  The  pupils  will  gladly 
collect  anything  they  can  find ;  but  the  teacher  should  observe  what 
is  said  in  the  preface  on  this  subject,  or  the  whole  subject  of  Nature 
Study  may  fall  into  disrepute.  The  teacher  who  would  undertake 
to  teach  Nature  Study  without  outdoor  observations,  field  lessons, 
and  material  will  simply  make  a  farce  out  of  it,  and  increase  the 
evil  of  bookishness  and  verbalism ;  in  other  words,  she  will  lead 
the  children  to  talk  about  things  that  they  do  not  know. 

313 


314  APPENDIX 

III.     HOW   TO   PRESERVE   PLANTS 

Lay  the  plants  or  twigs  between  sheets  of  newspaper,  cover  the 
paper  with  a  fairly  smooth  board,  place  stones  or  other  objects 
weighing  from  five  to  twenty  pounds  on  the  board.  The  first 
paper  with  the  plants  may  be  laid  on  a  dry  wooden  floor  or  table ; 
use  as  much  paper  and  as  many  boards  as  you  may  require. 
Change  the  paper  every  twenty-four  hours,  until  the  plants  feel 
entirely  dry  to'  the  touch,  then  fasten  them  on  uniform  sheets  of 
white  paper  by  means  of  gummed  paper  strips.  Write  the  name  of 
the  plant,  the  date  of  collection,  and  other  desirable  data  on  each 
sheet.  Fruit  and  seed  of  plants  are  best  kept  in  paper  boxes. 
Keep  these  plants  in  a  perfectly  dry  place. 

Some  care  should  be  exercised  that  children  do  not  come  in  con- 
tact with  Poison  Ivy,  as  this  results  sometimes  in  serious  cases  of 
skin  poisoning.  Study  carefully  the  figures  of  the  poison  ivy, 
and  of  the  Virginia  creeper. 

The  Virginia  Creeper  is  also  called  Woodbine  and  American 
Ivy.  A  very  common,  woody  vine,  climbing  extensively  by  ten- 
drils as  well  as  by  rootlets.  Small  greenish  flowers  in  July;  black 
or  bluish  berries,  ripe  in  October,  resembling  wild  grapes,  and  remain- 
ing on  the  vines  over  winter.  Each  leaf  generally  consisting  of 
jive  leaflets',  leaves  turning  bright  crimson  in  fall.  Leaves  and 
berries  are  both  harmless. 

The  Poison  Ivy,  or  Poison  Oak.  Leaves  consisting  of  three  leajlets 
each;  berries  whitish,  remaining  on  the  plant  over  winter.  In 
central  Minnesota  this  plant  is  generally  a  low,  erect  shrub,  from 
six  to  eighteen  inches  high,  but  it  sometimes  climbs  over  rocks  or 
ascends  trees.  Some  people  are  seriously  poisoned  by  touching 
the  plant. 

Children  cannot  be  too  strongly  warned  against  eating  plants  or 
fruits  of  whose  harmless  nature  they  are  not  absolutely  certain.  A 
child  that  has  eaten  of  a  poisonous  plant  should  at  once  be  given 
something  that  will  cause  vomiting,  and  a  physician  should  be 
called  as  soon  as  possible. 

See  V.  K.  Chestnut.     Some  Common  Poisonous  Plants. 
F.   V.  Coville.     Recent  Cases  of  Mushroom  Poisoning.      Both 
published  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 


APPENDIX 


815 


FIG.  59.  —  VIRGINIA  CREEPER.    Ampeltipsis  quinquefolia. 
Much  reduced. 


316 


APPENDIX 


FIG.  60.  — POISON  IVY,  OR  POISON  OAK.    Rhus  toxicodendron. 
Much  reduced. 


APPENDIX  317 

IV.     PRESERVATION  OF   INSECTS 

Place  about  one  hundred  grains  of  potassium  cyanide,  broken 
up  into  small  pieces  in  a  large-mouthed  bottle,  add  water  to  the 
depth  of  half  an  inch,  then  add  plaster  of  Paris  until  a  dry  cake 
is  formed.  Wipe  out  with  a  cloth  the  dry  plaster  adhering  to  the 
sides  of  the  bottle.  After  the  bottle  has  stood  loosely  corked  for 
an  hour,  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Any  insects  placed  in  this  poison  bottle  will  die  at  once.  They 
may  be  pinned  in  cigar  boxes,  or  may  be  preserved  in  paper  enve- 
lopes for  future  use.  Always  keep  your  poison  bottle  tightly 
corked,  the  cyanide  fumes  are  very  poisonous.  Children  should 
not  prepare  the  poison  bottle,  but  they  can  safely  use  it.  In  order 
to  make  the  legs  and  wings  of  dried  insects  again  pliable,  place 
the  insects  in  a  tin  pail,  put  a  piece  of  moist  blotting  paper  in  it, 
and  keep  the  pail  closed  for  about  half  a  day. 

V.     AQUARIUMS 

Common  butter  jars,  glass  fruit  jars,  and  electric  battery  jars, 
and  almost  any  kind  of  stone  and  glass  vessels  are  suitable  for  small 
aquariums.  Place  a  few  stones,  pebbles,  and  some  clean  gravel  on 
the  bottom.  Add  a  few  small  water  plants,  such  as  the  little  float- 
ing duckweeds,  tufts  of  the  green  threadlike  algae,  bits  of  water- 
pest,  etc.  Do  not  place  too  many  plants  nor  too  many  animals  in 
one  aquarium.  Experience  must  teach  you  what  animals  can  be 
placed  in  the  same  aquarium  without  eating  one  another.  Min- 
nows, crabs,  snails,  all  kinds  of  aquatic  insects,  tadpoles,  small 
water  plants,  can  be  kept  in  an  aquarium.  Minnows  and  tadpoles 
eat  crumbs  of  wheat  bread  or  goldfish  food ;  crabs,  water  beetles, 
and  a  few  other  insects  will  eat  earthworms,  bits  of  raw  meat,  flies, 
etc.  Some  animals  will  feed  on  the  minute  plants  and  animals  in 
the  aquarium.  Feed  your  animals  every  other  day  in  summer  and 
every  third  or  fourth  day  in  winter,  but  give  them  no  more  than 
they  will  eat.  Let  little  or  no  direct  sunlight  fall  into  the 
aquarium,  keep  the  water  fresh,  avoid  too  great  changes  of  tempera- 
ture when  you  change  the  water.  Aquariums  with  winged  insepts 
must  be  covered  with  gauze  to  prevent  the  insects  from  flying  out. 

See  MialL     Aquatic  Insects.     The  Macmillan  Company. 


318  APPENDIX 

VI.  OTHER  COLLECTIONS 

Children  Vnust  not  make  collections  of  birds  and  birds'  eggs.  A 
small  collection  of  mounted  birds  might  be  valuable  for  the  school, 
but  the  children  must  not  do  the  collecting,  nor  should  they  be 
allowed  to  collect  eggs. 

Bones  of  mammals  should  be  boiled,  after  which  the  flesh  can 
be  picked  oil,  but  they  should  be  prepared  by  the  teacher.  The 
teacher  can  also  procure  good  material  at  the  meat  market.  A 
clean  bone  or  a  clean,  fresh  piece  of  meat  are  not  objectionable. 
The  nests  of  birds  may  be  taken  after  the  young  birds  have  left 
them.  Such  nests  should  be  disinfected  by  being  placed  in  gaso- 
lene for  about  fifteen  minutes.  Do  not  place  the  gasolene  near  a 
lighted  lamp  or  near  fire  of  any  kind. 

VII.     ALCOHOLIC   MATERIAL 

Frogs,  tadpoles,  beetles,  and  other  insects,  as  well  as  fruits  and 
roots  of  plants,  can  be  preserved  for  an  indefinite  time  in  seventy 
per  cent  alcohol;  but  alcoholic  material  loses  most  of  its  natural 
color. 

VIII.     SOME  HELPFUL  LITERATURE 

1.  Write  to  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  of  your  state 
for  a  list  of  its  publications. 

2.  Write  to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.,  for 
a  list  of  publications  issued  by  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture. 

3.  Below  is  a  brief  list  of  books  that  will  furnish  interesting 
reading  for  somewhat  mature  persons. 

Any  of  the  books  of  John  Burroughs. 
Any  of  the  books  of  C.  C.  Abbott. 
Ingersoll     Wild  Neighbors. 
Cornish.     Animals  at  Work  and  at  Play. 
Rogers.     Hunting  American  Big  Game. 
Edwards.     Camp  Fires  of  a  Naturalist. 

Thompson.  The  Boys'  Book  of  Sports.  An  excellent  book  for 
young  and  old  to  have  with  you  when  out  camping. 


APPENDIX  319 

Arthur  and  MacDougal.  Living  Plants  and  Their  Properties. 
11.25.  University  Book  Store,  Minneapolis,  Minn. 

MacDougal.     Physiological  Botany. 

4.    See  the  books  mentioned  in  the  text. 

It  is  entirely  wrong  to  begin  the  study  of  nature  with  books. 
First  observe  the  life  about  you,  then  you  are  ready  for  special  and 
for  general  reading. 

5.    FARMERS'  BULLETINS. 

These  bulletins  are  sent  free  of  charge  to  any  address  upon  appli- 
cation to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

[Only  the  bulletins  named  below  are  available  for  distribution.] 
No. 

15.  Some  Destructive  Potato  Diseases :  What  They  Are  and  How 

to  Prevent  Them. 

16.  Leguminous  Plants  for  Green  Manuring  and  for  Feeding. 

18.  Forage  Plants  for  the  South. 

19.  Important  Insecticides:   Directions  for  Their  Preparation  and 

Use. 

20.  Washed  Soils:   How  to  Prevent  and  Reclaim  Them. 

21.  Barnyard  Manure. 

22.  Feeding  Farm  Animals. 

23.  Foods  :  Nutritive  Value  and  Cost. 

24.  Hog  Cholera  and  Swine  Plague. 

25.  Peanuts  :  Culture  and  Uses. 

26.  Sweet  Potatoes:  Culture  and  Uses. 

27.  Flax  for  Seed  and  Fibre. 

28.  Weeds;   and  How  to  Kill  Them. 

29.  Souring  of  Milk,  and  Other  Changes  in  Milk  Products. 

30.  Grape  Diseases  on  the  Pacific  Coast. 

31.  Alfalfa,  or  Lucern. 

32.  Silos  and  Silage. 

33.  Peach  Growing  for  Market. 

34.  Meats :  Composition  and  Cooking. 

35.  Potato  Culture. 

36.  Cotton  Seed  and  Its  Products. 

37.  Kafir  Corn:  Characteristics,  Culture,  and  Uses. 


320  APPENDIX 

38.  Spraying  for  Fruit  Diseases. 

39.  Onion  Culture. 

40.  Farm  Drainage. 

41.  Fowls:  Care  and  Feeding. 

42.  Facts  About  Milk. 

43.  Sewage  Disposal  on  the  Farm. 

44.  Commercial  Fertilizers. 

45.  Some  Insects  Injurious  to  Stored  Grain. 

46.  Irrigation  in  Humid  Climates. 

47.  Insects  Affecting  the  Cotton  Plant. 

48.  The  Manuring  of  Cotton. 

49.  Sheep  Feeding. 

50.  Sorghum  as  a  Forage  Crop. 

51.  Standard  Varieties  of  Chickens. 

52.  The  Sugar  Beet. 

53.  How  to  Grow  Mushrooms. 

54.  Some  Common  Birds  in  Their  Relation  to  Agriculture. 

55.  The  Dairy  Herd  :  Its  Formation  and  Management. 

56.  Experiment  Station  Work — I. 

57.  Butter  Making  on  the  Farm. 

58.  The  Soy  Bean  as  a  Forage  Crop. 

59.  Bee  Keeping. 

60.  Methods  of  Curing  Tobacco. 

61.  Asparagus  Culture. 

62.  Marketing  Farm  Produce. 

63.  Care  of  Milk  on  the  Farm. 

64.  Ducks  and  Geese. 

65.  P^xperiment  Station  Work —  II. 

66.  Meadows  and  Pastures. 

67.  Forestry  for  Farmers. 

69.  Experiment  Station  Work  —  III. 

70.  The  Principal  Insect  Enemies  of  the  Grape. 

72.  Cattle  Ranges  of  the  Southwest. 

73.  Experiment  Station  Work  —  IV. 

6.    Write  to  Cornell   University  Agricultural   College,  Ithaca, 
N.  Y.,  for  a  list  of  Bulletins  and  Teachers'  Leaflets. 


OF  THB 


APPENDI 


UNIVERSITY 


7.   LIST  OF  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES  AND  CANADA 

(Address  mail  to  them  in  the  following  manner:  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  St.  Anthony  Park,  Minn.) 

UNITED   STATES 


STATE 

POST-OFFICE 

STATE 

POST-OFFICE 

Alabama  (College)  . 
Alabama 
(Canebrake)     .    . 

Auburn. 

Uniontown. 
Tucson 

Missouri  .... 
Montana  .... 
Nebraska  .... 

Columbia. 
Bozeman. 
Lincoln. 

Arkansas  .... 
California  .... 
Colorado  .... 
Connecticut  (State). 
Connecticut  (Storrs) 
Delaware  .... 
Florida 

Fayetteville. 
Berkeley. 
Fort  Collins. 
New  Haven. 
Storrs. 
Newark. 
Lake  City 

New  Hampshire  .  . 
New  Jersey  (State)  . 

New  Jersey  (College) 

New  Mexico  .  .  . 
New  York  (State) 

Durham. 
New 
Brunswick. 
New 
Brunswick. 
Mesilla  Park. 

Experiment 

New  York  (Cornell) 

1  1  li;nia 

Idaho  .....  . 
Illinois  .... 

Moscow. 
Urbana. 

North  Carolina  .  . 
North  Dakota 

Raleigh. 
Farfifo 

Indiana  

Lafayette. 

Ohio  

W^ooster. 

Ames. 

Stillwater 

Manhattan. 

Oregon 

Corvallis 

Kentucky  .... 
Louisiana  (Sugar)  . 
Louisiana  (State)  . 
Louisiana  (North)  . 
Maine 

Lexington. 
New  Orleans. 
Baton  Rouge. 
Calhoun. 
Orono. 

Pennsylvania  . 
Rhode  Island  .     .     . 
South  Carolina    .     . 

South  Dakota 

State  College. 
Kingston. 
Clemsou 
College. 

Maryland  .... 
Massachusetts 

College  Park. 

Tennessee  .... 
Texas 

Knoxville. 
College 

(State)  .... 
Massachusetts 

Amherst. 

Utah  

Station. 
Logan  . 

(Hatch)  .... 
Michigan  .... 

Minnesota  .... 
Mississippi  .... 

Agricultural 
College. 
St.  Anthony 
Park. 
Agricultural 
College. 

Vermont  .... 
Virginia  .... 
Washington  .  .  . 
West  Virginia  .  . 
Wisconsin  .... 
Wyoming  .... 

Burlington. 
Blacksburg. 
Pullman. 
Morgantown. 
Madison. 
Laramie. 

322 


APPENDIX 


LIST  OF  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS.  —  Continued 

CANADA 


PROVINCE 

PoST-OFFH'K 

PROVINCE 

POST-OFFICE 

Manitoba    .... 
N  W  Tpri'i  1  ory 

Brandon. 
Indian  Head 

Nova  Scotia    .     .    . 
Ontario 

Nappan. 
Ottawa 

British  Columbia 

Agassiz. 

INDEX 


[The  foot-notes  and  publications  mentioned  in  the  text  are  not  indexed.    Binomials  are 
indexed  under  both  words.] 


About  home.    March  to  June,  1. 
Acer  dasycarpum,  130. 
Acer  saccharium,  130. 
Adiantum  pedatum,  239. 
Agricultural     experiment    stations, 

list  of,  in  the  United  States  and 

Canada,  321,  322. 
Agriculture,  influence  of,  upon  man, 

228. 

Agriculture,  stock-raising  and,  227. 
Alcoholic  material,  318. 
Ambrosia  artemisiasfolia,  58. 
Ambrosia  trifida,  58. 
American  big  game,  278. 
American  goldfinch,  162. 
Ampelopsis  quinquefolia,  315. 
Animal  life,  conditions  for,  304. 
Animal  life  in  the  woods,  154. 
Animal  life,  review  of,  302. 
Animals,  classes  of,  302. 
Animals,  domestic,  94. 
Animals,  influence  of  man  upon,  119. 
Animals  in  their  relation  to  plants 

and  to  inanimate  nature,  311. 
Animals,  our  duty  to,  121. 
Animals,    the    effect    of,    upon  the 

earth,  308. 

Anosia  plexippiis,  202. 
Aiithvmis  coluta,  58. 
Anthers,  16. 
Aphids,  8. 
Apple  tree,  4. 
Aquariums,  317. 


Arctium  Lappa,  58. 
Asclepias  Cornuti,  195. 
Ash-leaved  maple,  70. 
Ash,  white,  131,  139. 
Aspen,  137. 
Asp,  quaking,  127. 
August,  prairie  flowers  in,  50. 
Autumn,  the  woods  in,  238. 
Avenafatua,  192. 


Balm  of  Gilead,  129. 

Balsam  poplar,  129. 

Baltimore  oriole,  158. 

Bank,  sand,  40. 

Bare-soil  moss,  245. 

Barley,  183. 

Bass  wood,  135. 

Bat,  76. 

Bear,  285. 

Bee,  204. 

Beetle,  potato,  212. 

Begonias,  87. 

Beneficial,  insects,  to  man,  9. 

Berry,  sugar,  135. 

Betulapapyrifera,  131. 

Big  game,  American,  278. 

Birch,  canoe,  131. 

Birch,  paper,  131,  142. 

Birds,  closing  remarks  on,  165. 

Birds,    resident    in     our    Northern 

States,  2(52. 

Birds,  review  of  the,  271. 
Birds  seen  in  the  field,  216. 


323 


324 


INDEX 


Birds,  wee,  161. 

Bittern  ut,  134,  147. 

Blackbirds,  29. 

Blue  jay,  205. 

Blyssus  leucopterus,  211. 

Bobolink,  30. 

Bob  White,  218. 

Botanical  terms,  15. 

Box  elder,  70. 

Brake,  242. 

Brassica  Sinapistrum,  192. 

Brown  thrasher,  158. 

Bubo  Virginiunus,  268. 

Bug,  chinch,  211. 

Burdock,  62. 

Bur  oak,  134,  148. 

Buteo  borealis,  2(56. 

Butterflies,  cabbage,  199. 

Butternut,  133,  145. 


Cabbage  butterflies,  199. 

Cacti,  87. 

Calyx,  15. 

Canada  thistle,  60. 

Canoe  birch,  131. 

Carya  amara,  134. 

Cat,  97. 

Catbird,  155. 

Caterpillar,  tent,  6. 

Cattle,  101. 

Celtis  occidentalis,  135. 

Cervus  Virginianus,  278. 

Chickadee,  264. 

Chicken,  prairie,  218. 

Chickens,  domestic,  117. 

Chinch  bug,  211. 

Chipmunk,  167. 

Chippie,  162. 

Chipping  sparrow,  162. 

Classes  of  animals,  302. 

Clayton's  fern,  239. 

Clisiocampa  Americana,  6. 

Closing  remarks  on  birds,  165. 

Closing    remarks    on    life    in 

woods,  180. 
Clover,  sweet,  64. 
Cnicus  arvensis,  58. 


the 


Collections,  318. 

Common  mammals,  274. 

Common  ragweed,  58. 

Composite  family,  56. 

Concluding  remarks  on  cultivated 
plants,  191. 

Conditions  for  animal  life,  304. 

Corn, Indian, 186. 

Corolla,  15. 

Corylus  Americana,  132. 

Cottontail,  174. 

Cotton  wood,  129. 

Cotton  wood  poplar,  21. 

Crab,  fresh-water,  298. 

Crayfish,  298. 

Creeper,  Virginia,  314. 

Cud-chewers,  105. 

Cultivated  plants,  concluding  re- 
marks on,  191. 

Cyanocitta  cristata,  265. 

D 

Danais  Archippus,  202. 
Deer,  red,  278. 
Deer,  Virginia,  278. 
Dendroica  sestiva,  164. 
Destruction  of  pineries,  2T»9. 
Dog,  94. 
Dog  fennel,  60. 
Domestic  animals,  94. 
Domestic  chickens,  117. 
Dryobates  villosus,  262. 
Ducks,  118. 
Duty,  our,  to  animals,  121. 


Earth,  effect  of  water  and  ice,  etc., 

upon  the,  305. 
Earthworm,  221. 
Effect  of  water  and  ice,  etc.,  upon 

the  earth,  305. 
Elder,  box,  70. 
Elk,  283. 

Elm,  white,  133,  140. 
English  ivy,  87. 
English  sparrow,  73. 
Eupomotis  gibbosus,  295. 
Evergreens,  252. 


INDEX 


325 


Fall,  life  about  our  homes  in,  70. 
False  sunflower,  59. 
Farmers'  bulletins,  list  of,  319. 
Farming,    American,    neglected    or 

undeveloped  opportunities  in,  227. 
Fennel,  dog,  GO. 
Fern,  Clayton's,  239. 
Ferns  and  horsetails,  239. 
Field  and  garden  soil,  224. 
Field,  birds  seen  in  the,  216. 
Field,  in  the,  181. 
Field  lessons,  31.". 
Field,  mammals  in  the,  219. 
Field  work,  313. 
Fields,  insects  seen  in,  199. 
Firs,  255. 

Flag,  larger  blue,  33. 
Flies,  78. 

Flies,  ichneumon,  10. 
Flies,  tachina,  10. 
Flowering  maple,  87. 
Flowers,  91. 

Flowers  of  early  spring,  153. 
Flowers,  plants  that  have  none,  238. 
Flowers,  window,  85. 
Flowers,  prairie,  in  August,  50. 
Fly,  house,  78. 
Flying  squirrel,  171. 
Foliage,  insect  injuries  to,  233. 
Forest  fires,  259,  260. 
Forests  and  man,  293. 
Forests  in  the  economy  of  nature, 

291. 

Forests,  pine,  and  pines,  252. 
Fox,  red,  276. 
Fox  squirrel,  171. 
Foxtail,  yellow,  194. 
Fraxinus  Americana,  131. 
Fresh- water  crab,  298. 
Frog,  21. 
Fruit,  92. 

Fruit  of  trees,  shrubs,  and  vines,  235. 
Fruit  trees,  4. 
Fuchsias,  86. 

Funaria  hygrometrica,  245. 
Fungi,  248. 
Fungi,  about  a  few  other,  250. 


G 

Game,  American  big,  278. 
Garden  rose,  12. 
Garden  vegetables,  3. 
Gardens,  window,  87. 
Geese,  118. 

Geological  action  of  water,  38. 
Geraniums,  85. 
Giant  ragweed,  58. 
Gnawers,  177. 
Goldfinch,  American,  162. 
Gopher,  striped,  220. 
Grasses,  economy  of,  in  nature,  48. 
Grasses,   their    usefulness  to  man, 

47. 

Grasshoppers,  213. 
Grass,  pigeon,  194. 
Gray  rabbit,  174. 
Gray  squirrel,  171. 
Great  blue  heron,  32- 
Great  horned  owl,  268. 
Grosbeak,  rose-breasted,  160. 

H 

Hackberry,  135, 150. 

Hairbird,  162. 

Hair  moss,  245. 

Hairy  woodpecker,  262. 

Hares,  176,  177. 

Hawk,  red-tailed,  266. 

Hawks  and  owls,  266. 

Hazelnut,  wild,  132,  144. 

Heat,  the  effect  of,  upon  the  earth, 

308. 

Hedera  Helix,  87. 
Helianthus  annus,  53. 
Helpful  literature,  318. 
Hen,  prairie,  218. 
Heron,  great  blue,  32. 
Hickory,  swamp,  134,  147. 
Hog,  109. 

Home,  about.    March  to  June,  1. 
Honeybee,  204. 
Hop-hornbeam,  132. 
Hornbeam,  hop-,  132. 
Horse,  113. 
Horsetails,  243. 


326 


INDEX 


Horsetails,  ferns  and,  239. 
House  fly,  78. 
House  plants,  86. 
House  sparrow,  73. 

I 

Ice,  the  effect  of,  upon  the  earth,  306. 
Ichneumon  flies,  10. 
Indian  corn,  186. 

Influence  of  man  upon  animals,  119. 
Insect  in  juries  to  foliage,  233. 
Insects  beneficial  to  man,  9. 
Insects,  injurious  field,  210. 
Insects,  preservation  of,  317. 
Insects  seen  in  fields,  199. 
In  the  field,  181. 
Iris  versicolor,  33. 
Iron  wood,  132,  143. 
Iva  xanthiifolia,  58. 
Ivy,  English,  87. 
Ivy,  poison,  314,  316. 


Jay,  blue,  265. 
Juylans  cinerea,  133. 


Kingbird,  217. 


K 


Ladybugs,  10. 

Lake  and  river  in  winter,  295. 

Larger  blue  flag,  33. 

Leaves,  91. 

Leaves  of  our  trees  and  shrubs,  231. 

Lice,  plant,  8. 

Lichens,  245-247. 

Lichens,  mosses  and,  244. 

Life,    review    of,   in   and  near  the 

water,  36. 
Linden,  .135, 150. 
Literature,  helpful,  318. 
Locusts,  213. 
Lombardy  poplar,  129. 
Lucius  Indus,  298. 


M 


Maidenhair,  243, 
Maize,  186, 


Mammals,  a  few  common,  274. 
Mammals  in  and  about  the  woods, 

167. 

Mammals  in  the  field,  219. 
Mammals,  review  of  the,  286. 
Man,  forests  and,  293. 
Man,  influence  of  agriculture  upon, 

228. 

Man,  influence  of,  upon  animals,  119. 
Man  in  his  relation  to  animate  and 

inanimate  nature,  311. 
Maple,  ash-leaved,  70. 
Maple,  flowering,  87. 
Maple,  rock,  130. 
Maple,  silver,  130, 139. 
Maple,  soft,  130,  139. 
Maple,  sugar,  130,  144. 
Material,  313. 
Material,  alcoholic,  318. 
Meadow,  in  the,  44. 
Meliolotm  alba,  58. 
Merula  inigratoria,  11. 
Milkweed,  195. 
Mink,  275. 

Monarch  butterfly,  202. 
Moose,  283. 
Mosquito,  25. 
Moss,  bare-soil,  245. 
Mosses  and  lichens,  244. 
Moss,  hair,  245. 
Moss,  peat,  245. 
Mossy-cup  oak,  134. 
Moulds,  251. 
Mushrooms,  248. 
Mustard,  wild,  193. 

N 

Neglected  corners,  58. 
North  America,  importance  of  pine 
forests  for,  258. 

O 

Oak,  bur,  134,  148. 
Oak,  mossy-cup,  134. 
Oak,  poison,  314,  316. 
Oak,  scarlet,  134,  149. 
Oats,  183. 
Oats,  wild,  195. 


INDEX 


327 


Oilnut,  133. 

Opportunities,  neglected  or  undevel- 
oped, in  American  farming,  '227. 
Oriole,  Baltimore,  158. 
Osmunda  Claytonia,  239. 
Oxtrya  Virginica,  132. 
Our  homes  in  fall,  life  about,  70. 
Owl,  great  horned,  268. 
Owls,  hawks  and,  206. 


Paper  birch,  131,  142. 

Parus  atricapillus,  264. 

Peat  moss,  245. 

Pelargonium,  85. 

Petals,  16. 

Pickerel,  298. 

Pigeon  grass,  194. 

Pine  forests  and  forests  of  deciduous 

trees  compared,  255. 
Pine    forests,    importance    of,    for 

North  America,  258. 
Pine  lumber,  value  and  use  of,  260. 
Pineries,  destruction  of,  259. 
Pines  and  pine  forests,  252. 
Pines  in  the  economy  of  nature,  258. 
Pine,  white,  252. 
Pinus  Strobus,  252. 
Pistil,  16. 
Plant  lice,  8. 
Plants,  house,  86. 
Plants,  how  to  preserve,  314. 
Plants  in  their  relation  to  inanimate 

nature  and  to  animals,  311. 
Plants,  parts  of,  90. 
Plants,  review  of,  90. 
Plants  that  have  no  flowers,  238. 
Plants,  the  effect  of,  upon  the  earth, 

307. 

Poison  ivy,  314,  316. 
Poison  oak,  314,  316. 
Polytrichttm  commune,  245. 
Pond,   lake,    and  stream.     May  to 

July,  17. 

Poplar,  cottonwood,  21. 
Poplars,  20,  127. 
Populus  balsamifera,  129. 
Populus  dilatata,  129, 


Populus  monilifera,  129. 
Populus  tremuloides,  127. 
Potato,  187. 
Potato  beetle,  212. 
Poultry  yard,  117. 
Prairie  chicken,  218. 
Prairie  flowers  in  August,  50. 
Prairie  hen,  218. 
Preservation  of  insects,  317. 
Preserve  plants,  how  to,  314. 
Pteris  aquilina,  239. 
Puffballs,  249. 
Pumpkin  seed,  295. 
Putorius  vison,  275. 

Q 

Quail,  218. 
Quaking  asp,  127. 
Quercus  coccinea,  134. 
Quercus  macrocarpa,  134. 


Rabbit,  gray,  174. 

Rabbits,  176,  177. 

Raccoon,  277. 

Ragweed,  common,  58. 

Ragweed,  giant,  58. 

Red  deer,  278. 

Red-eyed  vireo,  165. 

Red  fox,  276. 

Red  squirrel,  171. 

Red-tailed  hawk,  266. 

Resident    birds    in    our    Northern 

States,  262. 
Review  and  summary  on  about  home, 

14. 
Review  and  summary  on  lake  and 

river  in  winter,  301. 
Review  and  summary  on  roadsides 

and  neglected  corners,  68. 
Review  and  summary  on  trees   in 

their  winter  condition,  1H5. 
Review  and   summary  on  woods  in 

bloom,  151. 

Review  of  animal  life,  302. 
Review  of  life  in  and  near  the  water, 

36. 
Review  of  plants,  90, 


328 


INDEX 


Re  view  of  the  birds,  271. 

Review  of  the  mammals,  286. 

Rhus  toxicodendron,  316. 

Roadsides,  58. 

Robin,  11. 

Rocks,  how  made,  42. 

Rock  maple,  130. 

Rodents,  177. 

Roots,  90. 

Rose-breasted  grosbeak,  160. 

Rose,  garden,  12. 

Russian  thistle,  65. 

Rust,  250. 

Ruminants,  105. 

Rye,  183. 

S 

Salso!a  Kali,  58. 
Sand  bank,  40. 
Scarlet  oak,  134,  14<) 
Sciurus  Carolinensif,  171. 
Sciurus  Hudsonius,  171. 
Sepals,  16. 
Setaria  glauca,  192. 
Sheep,  100. 
Silkweed,  195. 
Silver  maple,  130,  139. 
Skunk,  274. 
Smut,  250. 

Soil,  field  and  garden,  224. 
Soft  maple,  130,  139. 
Sparrow,  chipping,  162. 
Sparrow,  English,  73. 
Sparrow,  house,  73. 
Spermophilus  tridecemlineatus,  220. 
Sphagnum,  cymbifolium,  245. 
Spider,  80. 
Spinus  tristis,  162. 
Spizella  socialis,  162. 
Spring,  flowers  of  early,  153. 
Spruces,  255. 
Squirrel,  flying,  171. 
Squirrel,  fox,  171. 
Squirrel,  gray,  171. 
Squirrel,  red,  171. 
Squirrels,  tree,  171. 
Stamens,  16. 
Stem,  90. 


Stigmas,  16. 

Stock-raising  and  agriculture,  227. 

Striped  gopher,  220. 

Sugar  berry,  135. 

Sugar  maple,  130,  144. 

Summary  of  life  in  the  woods,  289. 

Summer  foliage,  the  woods  in  their. 

231.        * 
Sunfish,  295. 
Sunflower,  53. 
Sunflower,  false,  59. 
Swallows,  27. 
Swamp  hickory,  134,  147. 
Sweet  clover,  64. 


Tachina  flies,  10. 

Tamias  striatus,  107. 

Teachers'  leaflets,  320. 

Tent  caterpillar,  6. 

Terms,  botanical,  15. 

Thistle,  Canada,  60. 

Thistle,  Russian,  65. 

Thrasher,  brown,  158. 

Tilia  Americana,  135. 

Toadstools,  248. 

Tree,  apple,  4. 

Tree  squirrels,  171. 

Trees  and  shrubs,  the  leaves  of  our, 

231. 

Trees,  fruit,  4. 

Trees  in  their  winter  condition,  127. 
Trees,  introduction,  123. 
Trees,  shrubs,  and  vines,  the  fruit  of, 

235. 

Tulip,  1. 

Tulipa  Gesneriana,  1. 
rympanuchus  Americanm,  218. 
Tyrannus  tyrannus,  217. 

U 

Jlmus  Americana,  133. 
Underbrush,  177. 


Vegetables,  garden,  3. 
Ireo  olivaceus,  165. 


INDEX 


329 


Vireo,  red-eyed,  165. 
Virginia  creeper,  314. 
Virginia  deer,  278. 

W 

Wapiti,  283. 

Warbler,  yellow,  164. 

Water,  geological  action  of,  38. 

Water,   review  of  life  in  and  near 

the,  36. 
Water,  the  effect  of,  upon  the  earth, 

305. 

Wee  birds,  161. 
Weeds,  a  chapter  on,  58. 
Weeds,  a  few  common,  192. 
Weeds  in  the  economy  of  nature, 

69. 

Wheat,  183. 
White  ash,  131,  139. 
White  elm,  133,  140. 
White  pine,  252. 
Wild  hazelnut,  132. 


Wild  mustard,  193. 

Wild  oats,  195. 

Willows,  18. 

Window  flowers,  85. 

Window  gardens,  87. 

Winter,  lake  and  river  in,  295. 

Wolf,  285. 

Woodpecker,  hairy,  262. 

Woods,  animal  life  in  the,  154. 

Woods,  closing  remarks  on  life  in 

the,  180. 
Woods,  mammals  in  and  about  the, 

167. 

Woods  in  autumn,  238. 
Woods  in  bloom,  137. 
Woods  in  their  summer  foliage,  231. 
Woods,  introduction,  123. 
Woods,  summary  of  life  in  the,  289. 


Yellow  foxtail,  194. 
Yellow  warbler,  164. 


"AN  IDEAL  BOOK  ON  NATURE  STUDY" 

CITIZEN  BIRD. 

Scenes  from  Bird  Life  in  Plain  English  for  Beginners.  By 
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It  is  not  a  mere  sympathetic  plea  for  protection.  It  shows  how  Citi- 
zen Bird  "  works  for  his  own  living  as  well  as  ours,  pays  his  rent  and 
taxes,  and  gives  free  concerts  daily";  is  scientifically  accurate  in  de- 
scription of  anatomy,  dress,  and  habits;  and  is  illustrated  by  over  one 
hundred  engravings  in  half  tone,  together  with  descriptive  diagrams, 
and  has  a  valuable  index  of  some  one  hundred  and  fifty-four  American 
birds. 

It  is  a  question  when  one  becomes  too  old  to  enjoy  such  a  delight- 
ful and  entertaining  book. 


TOMMY-ANNE 

AND 

THE  THREE  HEARTS. 

By  MABEL  OSGOOD  WRIGHT.    With  many  Illustrations  by  Albert 
D.  Blashfield.     i2mo,  Cloth,  Colored  Edges.  $1.50. 

"  This  book  is  calculated  to  interest  children  in  nature,  and  grown  folks, 
too,  will  find  themselves  catching  the  author's  enthusiasm.  As  for  Tommy- 
Anne  herself,  she  is  bound  to  make  friends  wherever  she  is  known.  The 
more  of  such  books  as  these,  the  better  for  the  children.  One  Tommy- 
Anne  is  worth  a  whole  shelf  of  the  average  juvenile  literature."  —  Critic. 

"  Her  book  is  altogether  out  of  the  commonplace.  It  will  be  immensely 
entertaining  to  all  children  who  have  a  touch  of  imagination,  and  it  is 
instructive  and  attractive  to  older  readers  as  well."  —  Outlook. 

"The  work  is  probably  the  most  charming  nature-book  for  children 
published  this  year."  —  Dial. 


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66   FIFTH   AVENUE,    NEW  YORK, 


FIRST  BOOK  IN 
PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

By  RALPH  STOCKMAN  TARR,  B.S.,  F.G.S.A.,  Professor  of  Dy- 
namic Geology  and  Physical  Geography  at  Cornell  University. 
I2mo,  Half  Leather,  $1.10,  net. 

The  striking  success  of  Tarr's  Elementary  Physical  Geography  in 
high  schools  has  led  to  the  preparation  of  this  First  Book,  which  is 
designed  for  use  in  public  and  private  schools  requiring  a  somewhat 
shorter  course  than  is  given  in  the  Elementary  Physical  Geography. 
Its  claim  to  attention  lies  in  its  presentation  of  physical  geography  in 
its  modern  aspect.  The  main  emphasis  is  laid  upon  physiography,  and 
all  the  features  that  have  contributed  to  the  rapid  introduction  of  the 
earlier  books  are  retained  in  simpler  form. 


ELEMENTARY 
PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

By  R.  S.  TARR.     I2mo,  Half  Leather,  $1.40,  net. 

The  widespread  and  increasing  use  of  Tarr's  Elementary  Physical 
Geography,  due  originally  to  the  recent  and  general  change  in  methods 
of  teaching  the  subject,  has  received  a  renewed  impetus  during  the 
present  year  from  the  enthusiastic  commendations  of  the  teachers  in 
the  public  schools  of  Chicago,  Brooklyn,  Philadelphia,  Kansas  City, 
and  many  other  important  centres. 


ELEMENTARY  GEOLOGY. 

By  R.  S.  TARR.     I2mo,  Half  Leather,  $1.40,  net. 

This  book,  published  in  February,  1897,  is  now  generally  recognized 
as  the  most  attractive  and  scientific  presentation  of  the  subject  for  high 
schools.  Many  important  schools  have  already  adopted  it. 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY, 

66  FIFTH  AVENUE,   NEW  YORK. 
2 


BOOKS  ON  NATURE. 


BADENOCH  (L.  N.).  — The  Romance  of  the  Insect  World. 
By  L.  N.  BADENOCH.  With  Illustrations  by  Margaret  J.  D. 
Badenoch  and  others.  Second  Edition.  Gilt  top,  $1.25. 

"  The  volume  is  fascinating  from  beginning  to  end,  and  there  are  many 
hints  to  be  found  in  the  wisdom  and  thrift  shown  by  the  smallest  animal 
creatures."  —  Boston  Times. 

"  A  splendid  book  to  be  put  in  the  hands  of  any  youth  who  may  need 
an  incentive  to  interest  in  out-door  life  or  the  history  of  things  around 
him."  —  Chicago  Times. 

BRIGHTWEN.  —  Inmates  of  My  House  and  Garden.     By 

Mrs.  BRIGHTWEN.     Illustrated.     12010,  $1.25. 

"  One  of  the  most  charming  books  of  the  season,  both  as  to  form  and 
substance." —  The  Outlook. 

"The  book  fills  a  delightful  place  not  occupied  by  any  other  book  that 
we  have  ever  seen."  —  Boston  Home  Journal. 

GAYE.  — The  Great  World's  Farm.  Some  Account  of  Nat- 
ure's Crops  and  How  They  are  Grown.  By  SELINA  GAVE. 
With  a  Preface  by  G.  S.  Boulger,  F.L.S.,  and  numerous 
Illustrations.  I2mo,  $1.50. 

The  University  of  California  expressly  commends  this  to  its  affiliated 
secondary  schools  for  supplementary  reading. 

"  It  is  a  thoroughly  well-written  and  well-illustrated  book,  divested  as 
much  as  possible  of  technicalities,  and  is  admirably  adapted  to  giving  young 
people,  for  whom  it  was  prepared,  a  readable  account  of  plants  and  how 
they  live  and  grow."  —  Public  Opinion. 

"  One  of  the  most  delightful  semi-scientific  books,  which  every  one  enjoys 
reading  and  at  once  wishes  to  own.  Such  works  present  science  in  the 
most  fascinating  and  enticing  way,  and  from  a  cursory  glance  at  paragraphs 
the  reader  is  insensibly  led  on  to  chapters  and  thence  to  a  thorough  read- 
ing from  cover  to  cover.  .  .  .  The  work  is  especially  well  adapted  for 
school  purposes  in  connection  with  the  study  of  elementary  natural  science, 
to  which  modern  authorities  are  united  in  giving  an  early  and  important 
place  in  the  school  curriculum."  —  The  Journal  of  Education. 


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66  FIFTH   AVENUE,    NEW  YORK. 


HUTCHINSON.  —  The  Story  of  the  Hills.  A  Book  about 
Mountains  for  General  Readers  and  Supplementary  Reading 
in  Schools.  By  H.  N.  HUTCHINSON,  author  of  -'The  Auto- 
biography of  the  Earth,"  etc.  Illustrated.  $1.50. 

"  A  book  that  has  long  been  needed,  one  that  gives  a  clear  account  of 
the  geological  formation  of  mountains,  and  their  various  methods  of  origin, 
in  language  so  clear  and  untechnical  that  it  will  not  confuse  even  the  most 
unscientific."  —  Boston  Evening  Transcript. 

"  It  is  as  interesting  as  a  story,  and  full  of  the  most  instructive  informa- 
tion, which  is  given  in  a  style  that  every  one  can  comprehend.  .  .  ." 

—  Journal  of  Education. 

INGERSOLL.  —  Wild  Neighbors.  A  Book  about  Animals.  By 
ERNEST  INGERSOLL.  Illustrated.  I2mo,  Cloth.  $1.50. 

JAPP  (A.  H.).— Hours  in  My  Garden,  and  Other  Nature- 
Sketches.  With  138  Illustrations,  $1.75. 

"  It  is  not  a  book  to  be  described,  but  to  be  read  in  the  spirit  in  which  it 
is  written  —  carefully  and  lovingly."  —  Mail  and  Express. 

"  It  is  a  book  to  be  read  and  enjoyed  by  both  young  and  old." 

—  Public  Opinion, 

POTTS  (W.).  —  From  a  New  England  Hillside.  Notes  from 
Underledge.  By  WILLIAM  POTTS.  Macmillari's  Miniature 
Series.  i8mo,  75  cents. 

"  But  the  attraction  of  Mr.  Potts'  book  is  not  merely  in  its  record  of  the 
natural  year.  He  has  been  building  a  house,  and  we  have  the  humors  and 
the  satisfactions,  and  hopes  deferred,  that  usually  attend  that  business.  He 
has  been  digging  a  well,  and  the  truth  which  he  has  found  at  the  bottom  of 
that  he  has  duly  set  forth.  .  .  .  Then,  too,  his  village  is  Farmington,  Conn., 
and  there  Miss  Porter  has  her  famous  schools,  and  her  young  ladies  flit 
across  his  page  and  lend  their  brightness  to  the  scene.  And,  moreover,  he 
sometimes  comes  back  to  the  city,  and  he  writes  pleasantly  of  his  New 
York  club,  the  Century.  Last,  but  not  least,  there  are  lucubrations  on  a 
great  many  personal  and  social  topics,  in  which  the  touch  is  light  and  grace- 
ful and  the  philosophy  is  sound  and  sweet."  —  Brooklyn  Standard- Union. 

WEED.  — Life  Histories  of  American  Insects.  By  Professor 
CLARENCE  M.  WEED,  New  Hampshire  College  of  Agriculture 
and  Mechanical  Arts.  Fully  Illustrated.  Cloth.  $1.50. 


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66  FIFTH  AVENUE,   NEW  YORK. 


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